tag:blogger.com,1999:blog-36006268240185119942024-03-14T08:18:00.281+01:00PROSPERITY"The golden age has passed. The sophists, economists and calculators have replaced the time" – Edmund BurkeTeuku Bahran Basyiranhttp://www.blogger.com/profile/10525417589204464156noreply@blogger.comBlogger52125tag:blogger.com,1999:blog-3600626824018511994.post-33586528652965339382018-09-25T11:17:00.000+02:002018-09-25T11:18:05.113+02:00Menulis Letter of Motivation Terbaik untuk Beasiswa DAAD (Official Guide)<style class="WebKit-mso-list-quirks-style"> <!-- /* Style Definitions */ p.MsoNormal, li.MsoNormal, div.MsoNormal {mso-style-unhide:no; mso-style-qformat:yes; mso-style-parent:""; margin-top:0cm; margin-right:0cm; margin-bottom:8.0pt; margin-left:0cm; line-height:107%; mso-pagination:widow-orphan; font-size:11.0pt; font-family:Calibri; mso-ascii-font-family:Calibri; mso-ascii-theme-font:minor-latin; mso-fareast-font-family:Calibri; mso-fareast-theme-font:minor-latin; mso-hansi-font-family:Calibri; mso-hansi-theme-font:minor-latin; mso-bidi-font-family:Arial; mso-bidi-theme-font:minor-bidi; mso-ansi-language:IN; 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<span lang="EN-US" style="font-size: 12pt; line-height: 17.1200008392334px;">Berikut ini merupakan guidelines untuk menulis motivation letter yang disarankan langsung oleh DAAD melalui laman websitenya pada tahun 2015 akhir, pada saat saya apply beasiswa DAAD. Dari saran DAAD untuk konten/isi motivation letter di setiap paragraph, saya mencoba untuk breakdown maksud dan tujuannya.<o:p></o:p></span></div>
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<span lang="EN-US" style="font-size: 12pt; line-height: 17.1200008392334px;">Mungkin sudah banyak sekali di luar sana yang menjelasan bagaimana menulis motivation letter yang proper. Tapi saya disini coba menghubungan saran penulisan dan pengalaman spesifik dalam apply beasiswa DAAD.<o:p></o:p></span></div>
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<u style="font-size: 11pt;"><span lang="EN-US" style="font-size: 12pt; line-height: 17.1200008392334px;">Contents:</span></u></div>
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<!--[if !supportLists]--><b><span lang="EN-US" style="font-size: 12.0pt; line-height: 107%; mso-ansi-language: EN-US; mso-bidi-font-family: Calibri; mso-bidi-font-size: 11.0pt; mso-bidi-theme-font: minor-latin;">Para1.<span style="font-family: "times new roman"; font-size: 7pt; font-stretch: normal; font-weight: normal; line-height: normal;"> </span></span></b><!--[endif]--><span lang="EN-US" style="font-size: 12pt; line-height: 17.1200008392334px;">What is your professional goal? In which sector would you like to work after obtaining your Master’s degree?<o:p></o:p></span></div>
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<span style="font-size: 12pt;">(Sebaiknya goals dan sektornya linear dengan program studi yang direncanakan untuk kuliah di Jerman nantinya. Juga sedikit dilatarbelakangi background pengalaman untuk support goals tersebut. Ini 95% bakal ditanya di interview DAAD)</span><span style="font-family: "times new roman"; font-size: 12pt;"><o:p></o:p></span></div>
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<!--[if !supportLists]--><b><span lang="EN-US" style="font-size: 12.0pt; line-height: 107%; mso-ansi-language: EN-US; mso-bidi-font-family: Calibri; mso-bidi-font-size: 11.0pt; mso-bidi-theme-font: minor-latin;">Para2.<span style="font-family: "times new roman"; font-size: 7pt; font-stretch: normal; font-weight: normal; line-height: normal;"> </span></span></b><!--[endif]--><span lang="EN-US" style="font-size: 12pt; line-height: 17.1200008392334px;">In which way do you intend to contribute to your home country once you are in a respective position.<o:p></o:p></span></div>
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<span lang="EN-US" style="font-size: 12pt; line-height: 17.1200008392334px;">(Refer to ilmu, wawasan, dan pengalaman kamu. Diutamakan untuk memperlihatkan data berisi fakta dan figur yang konkrit dan berhubungan dengan kontribusi tersebut. Penting, jangan membuat kontribusi yang sangat umum dan terlalu berangan-angan, usahakan kontribusi yang konkrit. Contoh yang umum: I want to be part of government bureau in Economic sector which then could directly contribute to accelerate the national economy. Contoh yang konkritnya: I want to assist the bottom-40 population to be more productive and earn more by easing the small enterprise implementation, help them to get a fund and to develop their own business, because small dan medium enterprises are effective sectors for enhancing national economic growth)<o:p></o:p></span></div>
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<!--[if !supportLists]--><b><span lang="EN-US" style="font-size: 12.0pt; line-height: 107%; mso-ansi-language: EN-US; mso-bidi-font-family: Calibri; mso-bidi-font-size: 11.0pt; mso-bidi-theme-font: minor-latin;">Para3.<span style="font-family: "times new roman"; font-size: 7pt; font-stretch: normal; font-weight: normal; line-height: normal;"> </span></span></b><!--[endif]--><span lang="EN-US" style="font-size: 12pt; line-height: 17.1200008392334px;">Why do you apply for the chosen Master’s programme? Which of the courses offered in this programme are particularly beneficial in pursuing your professional goals.<o:p></o:p></span></div>
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<span lang="EN-US" style="font-size: 12pt; line-height: 17.1200008392334px;">(lagi-lagi penting untuk mempertimbangkan linearitas program studi S1-S2-dan-karir nantinya dan juga sedikit dari pentingnya program studi tersebut untuk Indonesia/daerah kamu. It matters most in Germany. Professional goals tidak selalu harus berkontribusi dari sector pemerintahan, teman-teman juga bisa menjelaskan pentingnya suatu karir sector swasta untuk pembangunan daerah/Indonesia, contohnya seperti ingin mengembangan bisnis bidang biotechnology (i.e. jualan bakteri yang sangat bermanfaat di banyak sector pembangunan) yang Germany sedang gencar dalam research ini. Mereka sangat appreciate international student yang ingin membangun daerah/negaranya. Contoh ilmu social, dari aku: Studying in Economics program in Germany is a great way for me to deepen my understanding theoretically, to get practical experience, and to widen my knowledge in Economic sector since Germany is one of 5 World’s top country according to GDP per capita. So I could bring these benefits of studying in Germany to develop my country. The courses that would help a lot are Econometrics as statistical knowledge, Microeconomics as I want to contribute in micro sector, and Industrial Organization as this is the part where Germany is the World’s best.)</span></div>
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<!--[if !supportLists]--><b><span lang="EN-US" style="font-size: 12.0pt; line-height: 107%; mso-ansi-language: EN-US; mso-bidi-font-family: Calibri; mso-bidi-font-size: 11.0pt; mso-bidi-theme-font: minor-latin;">Para4.<span style="font-family: "times new roman"; font-size: 7pt; font-stretch: normal; font-weight: normal; line-height: normal;"> </span></span></b><!--[endif]--><span lang="EN-US" style="font-size: 12pt; line-height: 17.1200008392334px;">Why do you think you are the right person for this programme?<o:p></o:p></span></div>
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<!--[if !supportLists]--><span lang="EN-US" style="font-size: 12.0pt; line-height: 107%; mso-ansi-language: EN-US; mso-ascii-font-family: Calibri; mso-bidi-font-family: Calibri; mso-bidi-font-size: 11.0pt; mso-fareast-font-family: Calibri; mso-hansi-font-family: Calibri;">-<span style="font-family: "times new roman"; font-size: 7pt; font-stretch: normal; line-height: normal;"> </span></span><!--[endif]--><span lang="EN-US" style="font-size: 12pt; line-height: 17.1200008392334px;">What your knowledge and skills will be useful?<o:p></o:p></span></div>
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<span lang="EN-US" style="font-size: 12pt; line-height: 17.1200008392334px;">(Hati-hati jangan mengulang apa yang sudah ditulis di paragraf sebelumnya)<o:p></o:p></span></div>
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<!--[if !supportLists]--><span lang="EN-US" style="font-size: 12.0pt; line-height: 107%; mso-ansi-language: EN-US; mso-ascii-font-family: Calibri; mso-bidi-font-family: Calibri; mso-bidi-font-size: 11.0pt; mso-fareast-font-family: Calibri; mso-hansi-font-family: Calibri;">-<span style="font-family: "times new roman"; font-size: 7pt; font-stretch: normal; line-height: normal;"> </span></span><!--[endif]--><span lang="EN-US" style="font-size: 12pt; line-height: 17.1200008392334px;">Have you already gathered any relevant professional experience?<o:p></o:p></span></div>
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<span lang="EN-US" style="font-size: 12pt; line-height: 17.1200008392334px;">(simply jelaskan pengalaman kamu yang relevan dengan program studi tujuan. Jika belum ada, jelaskan secara bagus dan persuasive untuk menutupi kekurangan tersebut. Tapi aku yakin setiap orang pasti memiliki pengalaman, ceritakan saja pengalaman terkait yang didapatkan selama kuliah S1. Pengalaman disini tidak harus selalu kerja yang menghasilkan uang)<o:p></o:p></span></div>
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<!--[if !supportLists]--><span lang="EN-US" style="font-size: 12.0pt; line-height: 107%; mso-ansi-language: EN-US; mso-ascii-font-family: Calibri; mso-bidi-font-family: Calibri; mso-bidi-font-size: 11.0pt; mso-fareast-font-family: Calibri; mso-hansi-font-family: Calibri;">-<span style="font-family: "times new roman"; font-size: 7pt; font-stretch: normal; line-height: normal;"> </span></span><!--[endif]--><span lang="EN-US" style="font-size: 12pt; line-height: 17.1200008392334px;">Have you gathered any relevant experience as a member of any organization? (Student Association, NGO, voluntary services, social involvement, etc)<o:p></o:p></span></div>
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<!--[if !supportLists]--><span lang="EN-US" style="font-size: 12.0pt; line-height: 107%; mso-ansi-language: EN-US; mso-ascii-font-family: Calibri; mso-bidi-font-family: Calibri; mso-bidi-font-size: 11.0pt; mso-fareast-font-family: Calibri; mso-hansi-font-family: Calibri;">-<span style="font-family: "times new roman"; font-size: 7pt; font-stretch: normal; line-height: normal;"> </span></span><!--[endif]--><span lang="EN-US" style="font-size: 12pt; line-height: 17.1200008392334px;">How do you estimate your own personality? Do you think you are a good leader? Are you somebody who can make a difference? What makes you think so? <o:p></o:p></span></div>
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<span lang="EN-US" style="font-size: 12pt; line-height: 17.1200008392334px;">(Ini lebih seperti pertanyaan yang ada di psikotes. Emphasize your strong points, but be realistic)<o:p></o:p></span></div>
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<div class="MsoListParagraphCxSpFirst" style="margin-left: 35.45pt; mso-add-space: auto; mso-list: l2 level1 lfo1; text-align: justify; text-indent: -35.45pt;">
<!--[if !supportLists]--><b><span lang="EN-US" style="font-size: 12.0pt; line-height: 107%; mso-ansi-language: EN-US; mso-bidi-font-family: Calibri; mso-bidi-font-size: 11.0pt; mso-bidi-theme-font: minor-latin;">Para5.<span style="font-family: "times new roman"; font-size: 7pt; font-stretch: normal; font-weight: normal; line-height: normal;"> </span></span></b><!--[endif]--><span lang="EN-US" style="font-size: 12pt; line-height: 17.1200008392334px;">Why do you want to study in Germany?<o:p></o:p></span></div>
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<span lang="EN-US" style="font-size: 12pt; line-height: 17.1200008392334px;">(jujur saja. Salah satunya ingin mendapatkan high quality of education in the advanced-economy country, like Germany, and learn something new and big there)<o:p></o:p></span></div>
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<u><span lang="EN-US" style="font-size: 12pt; line-height: 17.1200008392334px;">Caution!!<o:p></o:p></span></u></div>
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<span lang="EN-US" style="font-size: 12pt; line-height: 17.1200008392334px;">Hal-hal yang perlu diperhatikan dalam menulis motivation letter. <o:p></o:p></span></div>
<div class="MsoListParagraphCxSpFirst" style="margin-left: 14.2pt; mso-add-space: auto; mso-list: l1 level1 lfo3; text-align: justify; text-indent: -14.2pt;">
<!--[if !supportLists]--><b><span lang="EN-US" style="font-size: 12.0pt; line-height: 107%; mso-ansi-language: EN-US; mso-bidi-font-family: Calibri; mso-bidi-font-size: 11.0pt; mso-bidi-theme-font: minor-latin;">1.<span style="font-family: "times new roman"; font-size: 7pt; font-stretch: normal; font-weight: normal; line-height: normal;"> </span></span></b><!--[endif]--><span lang="EN-US" style="font-size: 12pt; line-height: 17.1200008392334px;">Take your time and start early. The letter of motivation is a crucial document in your application. Never try to write it down in one evening.<o:p></o:p></span></div>
<div class="MsoListParagraphCxSpMiddle" style="margin-left: 14.2pt; mso-add-space: auto; mso-list: l1 level1 lfo3; text-align: justify; text-indent: -14.2pt;">
<!--[if !supportLists]--><b><span lang="EN-US" style="font-size: 12.0pt; line-height: 107%; mso-ansi-language: EN-US; mso-bidi-font-family: Calibri; mso-bidi-font-size: 11.0pt; mso-bidi-theme-font: minor-latin;">2.<span style="font-family: "times new roman"; font-size: 7pt; font-stretch: normal; font-weight: normal; line-height: normal;"> </span></span></b><!--[endif]--><span lang="EN-US" style="font-size: 12pt; line-height: 17.1200008392334px;">Do not start your letter of motivation by repeating your CV.<o:p></o:p></span></div>
<div class="MsoListParagraphCxSpMiddle" style="margin-left: 14.2pt; mso-add-space: auto; mso-list: l1 level1 lfo3; text-align: justify; text-indent: -14.2pt;">
<!--[if !supportLists]--><b><span lang="EN-US" style="font-size: 12.0pt; line-height: 107%; mso-ansi-language: EN-US; mso-bidi-font-family: Calibri; mso-bidi-font-size: 11.0pt; mso-bidi-theme-font: minor-latin;">3.<span style="font-family: "times new roman"; font-size: 7pt; font-stretch: normal; font-weight: normal; line-height: normal;"> </span></span></b><!--[endif]--><span lang="EN-US" style="font-size: 12pt; line-height: 17.1200008392334px;">Make sure your letter of motivation is well composed. First, reflect on all the above questions, take notes, read more, discuss with friends. Then write an outline. Then write the text. (Not all of the above questions have to be addressed!) Do not include the outline or the questions in your text.<o:p></o:p></span></div>
<div class="MsoListParagraphCxSpMiddle" style="margin-left: 14.2pt; mso-add-space: auto; mso-list: l1 level1 lfo3; text-align: justify; text-indent: -14.2pt;">
<!--[if !supportLists]--><b><span lang="EN-US" style="font-size: 12.0pt; line-height: 107%; mso-ansi-language: EN-US; mso-bidi-font-family: Calibri; mso-bidi-font-size: 11.0pt; mso-bidi-theme-font: minor-latin;">4.<span style="font-family: "times new roman"; font-size: 7pt; font-stretch: normal; font-weight: normal; line-height: normal;"> </span></span></b><!--[endif]--><span lang="EN-US" style="font-size: 12pt; line-height: 17.1200008392334px;">Apply an appropriate style of writing.<o:p></o:p></span></div>
<div class="MsoListParagraphCxSpMiddle" style="margin-left: 14.2pt; mso-add-space: auto; mso-list: l1 level1 lfo3; text-align: justify; text-indent: -14.2pt;">
<!--[if !supportLists]--><b><span lang="EN-US" style="font-size: 12.0pt; line-height: 107%; mso-ansi-language: EN-US; mso-bidi-font-family: Calibri; mso-bidi-font-size: 11.0pt; mso-bidi-theme-font: minor-latin;">5.<span style="font-family: "times new roman"; font-size: 7pt; font-stretch: normal; font-weight: normal; line-height: normal;"> </span></span></b><!--[endif]--><span lang="EN-US" style="font-size: 12pt; line-height: 17.1200008392334px;">Avoid all kind of platitudes, flowery phrases and flattery.<o:p></o:p></span></div>
<div class="MsoListParagraphCxSpMiddle" style="margin-left: 14.2pt; mso-add-space: auto; mso-list: l1 level1 lfo3; text-align: justify; text-indent: -14.2pt;">
<!--[if !supportLists]--><b><span lang="EN-US" style="font-size: 12.0pt; line-height: 107%; mso-ansi-language: EN-US; mso-bidi-font-family: Calibri; mso-bidi-font-size: 11.0pt; mso-bidi-theme-font: minor-latin;">6.<span style="font-family: "times new roman"; font-size: 7pt; font-stretch: normal; font-weight: normal; line-height: normal;"> </span></span></b><!--[endif]--><span lang="EN-US" style="font-size: 12pt; line-height: 17.1200008392334px;">Deal with your topics in a reflective and factual way. Do not campaign for your beliefs.<o:p></o:p></span></div>
<div class="MsoListParagraphCxSpMiddle" style="margin-left: 14.2pt; mso-add-space: auto; mso-list: l1 level1 lfo3; text-align: justify; text-indent: -14.2pt;">
<!--[if !supportLists]--><b><span lang="EN-US" style="font-size: 12.0pt; line-height: 107%; mso-ansi-language: EN-US; mso-bidi-font-family: Calibri; mso-bidi-font-size: 11.0pt; mso-bidi-theme-font: minor-latin;">7.<span style="font-family: "times new roman"; font-size: 7pt; font-stretch: normal; font-weight: normal; line-height: normal;"> </span></span></b><!--[endif]--><span lang="EN-US" style="font-size: 12pt; line-height: 17.1200008392334px;">Proofread the text and delete all dispensable and redundant parts. In the end, your letter of motivation should comprise not more than two or three pages. Pay attention to grammar and spelling!<o:p></o:p></span></div>
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<!--[if !supportLists]--><b><span lang="EN-US" style="font-size: 12.0pt; line-height: 107%; mso-ansi-language: EN-US; mso-bidi-font-family: Calibri; mso-bidi-font-size: 11.0pt; mso-bidi-theme-font: minor-latin;">8.<span style="font-family: "times new roman"; font-size: 7pt; font-stretch: normal; font-weight: normal; line-height: normal;"> </span></span></b><!--[endif]--><b><span lang="EN-US" style="font-size: 12pt; line-height: 17.1200008392334px;">Keep in mind that your letter of motivation may be discussed with you during pre-selection interviews!</span></b><span lang="EN-US" style="font-size: 12pt; line-height: 17.1200008392334px;"><o:p></o:p></span></div>
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<span lang="EN-US" style="font-size: 12pt; line-height: 17.1200008392334px;">Additional caution: Usahakan motivation letter ditulis maksimal 1.5 halaman, 1 halaman is preferable. Ini sesuai dengan pengalaman saya apply beasiswa dan universitas.<o:p></o:p></span></div>
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<span lang="EN-US" style="font-size: 12pt; line-height: 17.1200008392334px;">Sekian dan terima kasih sudah membaca. Semoga bermanfaat. Viel Erfolg!!<o:p></o:p></span></div>
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<span lang="EN-US" style="font-size: 12pt; line-height: 17.1200008392334px;">Source: DAAD, 2015 (www.daad.de/en)<o:p></o:p></span></div>
Teuku Bahran Basyiranhttp://www.blogger.com/profile/10525417589204464156noreply@blogger.com0tag:blogger.com,1999:blog-3600626824018511994.post-34833421051931529882018-09-24T17:36:00.000+02:002018-09-27T14:09:34.803+02:00Mempersiapkan Studi ke Luar Negeri: Beasiswa LPDP (Finally, Yay!)<!--[if gte mso 9]><xml>
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<span style="color: #444444; font-family: "georgia" , "times new roman" , serif; font-size: small;"></span><br />
<span style="color: #444444; font-family: "georgia" , "times new roman" , serif; font-size: 16px;">atau</span><br />
<span style="color: #444444; font-family: "georgia" , "times new roman" , serif; font-size: 16px;"><b>Mimpi itu... Harus Dijemput (Bagian 3/Tamat)</b></span><br />
<span style="color: #444444; font-family: "georgia" , "times new roman" , serif; font-size: 16px;"><b><br /></b></span> <span style="color: #444444; font-family: "georgia" , "times new roman" , serif; font-size: 16px;"><b>*</b><i>tulisan di bawah ini dimaksudkan untuk menutup seri 'Mimpi Itu...'. Iya, setelah setelah satu tahun tulisan ini bisa diselesaikan hehehe</i></span><br />
<span style="color: #444444; font-family: "georgia" , "times new roman" , serif; font-size: 16px;"><i>**Klik disini untuk teman-teman yang sebelumnya mau baca <a href="http://tbahran.blogspot.com/2018/08/mimpi-itu-harus-dijemput-bagian-1.html">Bagian 1</a> </i></span><span style="color: #444444; font-family: "georgia" , "times new roman" , serif; font-size: 16px;"><i>dan <a href="http://tbahran.blogspot.com/2018/08/mimpi-itu-harus-dijemput-bagian-2.html">Bagian 2</a></i></span><i style="color: #444444; font-family: georgia, "times new roman", serif; font-size: 16px;"> dari serial "Mimpi Itu... Harus Dijemput"</i><br />
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<span style="color: #444444; font-family: "georgia" , "times new roman" , serif;"><b>Jakarta, 15 Agustus 2018</b></span></div>
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<div class="MsoNormal" style="text-align: justify;">
<span style="color: #454545;"><span style="color: #444444; font-family: "georgia" , "times new roman" , serif; font-size: small;">Setelah mengalami beberapa kegagalan dalam mempersiapkan studi ke luar negeri dan seleksi beasiswa di tahun 2015, saya akhirnya berhasil mendapatkan mendapatkan skor IELTS yang mumpuni untuk mendaftar di seleksi LPDP dan kampus-kampus yang saya tuju pada Maret 2016. </span></span></div>
<div class="MsoNormal" style="text-align: justify;">
<span style="color: #444444; font-family: "georgia" , "times new roman" , serif;"><br /></span></div>
<div class="MsoNormal" style="text-align: justify;">
<span style="color: #454545; mso-bidi-font-family: "Times New Roman"; mso-fareast-language: EN-GB;"><span style="color: #444444; font-family: "georgia" , "times new roman" , serif; font-size: small;">Sebelum saya bersiap melaksanakan seleksi LPDP dan sekaligus mendaftar kampus-kampus baik di UK dan di Jerman, juga salah satu kampus di Malaysia. Akhirnya saya mendapatkan beasiswa LPDP ke UK dan unconditional LoA dari kampus-kampus yang saya daftar di UK seperti King’s College London, University of Edinburgh, University of Exeter, University of Leeds dan SOAS, University of London. Pada akhirnya saya memilih untuk melanjutkan studi master saya di SOAS karena memang sejak awal SOAS adalah tujuan utama saya.<o:p></o:p></span></span></div>
<div class="MsoNormal" style="text-align: justify;">
<span style="color: #444444; font-family: "georgia" , "times new roman" , serif;"><br /></span></div>
<div class="MsoNormal" style="text-align: justify;">
<span style="color: #454545; mso-bidi-font-family: "Times New Roman"; mso-fareast-language: EN-GB;"><span style="color: #444444; font-family: "georgia" , "times new roman" , serif; font-size: small;">Setelah perjalanan panjang untuk melanjutkan studi dengan beasiswa, saya merasa ada perubahan yang signifikan dalam proses mempersiapkan segala seleksi tersebut. Saya mencoba untuk membagi pengalaman saya ke dalam tips-tips mempersiapkan studi ke luar negeri dengan beasiswa LPDP.<o:p></o:p></span></span></div>
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<span style="color: #444444; font-family: "georgia" , "times new roman" , serif;"><br /></span></div>
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<span style="color: #454545; mso-bidi-font-family: "Times New Roman"; mso-fareast-language: EN-GB;"><span style="color: #444444; font-family: "georgia" , "times new roman" , serif; font-size: small;">Berikut adalah langkah-langkahnya secara berurutan:<o:p></o:p></span></span></div>
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<span style="color: #444444; font-family: "georgia" , "times new roman" , serif;"><br /></span></div>
<div class="MsoNormal" style="text-align: justify;">
<span style="color: #454545; mso-bidi-font-family: "Times New Roman"; mso-fareast-language: EN-GB;"><span style="color: #444444; font-family: "georgia" , "times new roman" , serif; font-size: small;">1. Specify your intention<o:p></o:p></span></span></div>
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<span style="color: #454545; mso-bidi-font-family: "Times New Roman"; mso-fareast-language: EN-GB;"><span style="color: #444444; font-family: "georgia" , "times new roman" , serif; font-size: small;">Saya membagi niat dalam tiga jenis, yaitu:<o:p></o:p></span></span></div>
<ul style="margin-top: 0in;" type="disc">
<li class="MsoNormal"><span style="mso-bidi-font-family: "Times New Roman"; mso-fareast-font-family: "Times New Roman"; mso-fareast-language: EN-GB;"><span style="color: #444444; font-family: "georgia" , "times new roman" , serif; font-size: small;">Personal: Niat melakukan studi harus dimulai dari untuk perbaikan diri sendiri. Ada berbagai bentuk niat personal, contohnya trait-trait yang ingin ditingkatkan, seperti haus akan ilmu, keingintahuan yang dalam, keinginan untuk hidup mandiri. <o:p></o:p></span></span></li>
<li class="MsoNormal"><span style="mso-bidi-font-family: "Times New Roman"; mso-fareast-font-family: "Times New Roman"; mso-fareast-language: EN-GB;"><span style="color: #444444; font-family: "georgia" , "times new roman" , serif; font-size: small;">Profesional: Niat profesional maksudnya bukan membuat harapan bahwa studi di luar negerilah yang memberikan kemudahan kita dalam mendapatkan pekerjaan. Tapi bagaimana studi di luar negeri bisa meningkatkan kemampuan profesional yang lebih dapat diaplikasikan.<o:p></o:p></span></span></li>
<li class="MsoNormal"><span style="mso-bidi-font-family: "Times New Roman"; mso-fareast-font-family: "Times New Roman"; mso-fareast-language: EN-GB;"><span style="color: #444444; font-family: "georgia" , "times new roman" , serif; font-size: small;">Sosial: Kenapa perlu ada niat sosial? Studi di luar negeri, belajar dan hidup di negeri orang, akan menjadi sia-sia ketika tidak dapat kebermanfaatan bangsa, negara, agama, dan manusia secara global. Seminimalnya, keberadaan kita setelah mendapatkan ilmu yang lebih harus membawa perubahan yang lebih baik paling tidak bagi orang dan lingkungan di sekitar kita.<o:p></o:p></span></span></li>
</ul>
<div class="MsoNormal">
<span style="color: #454545; mso-bidi-font-family: "Times New Roman"; mso-fareast-language: EN-GB;"><span style="color: #444444; font-family: "georgia" , "times new roman" , serif; font-size: small;">Apapun niat yang dimiliki masing-masing dari kita pastikan untuk memulai persiapan ini dengan niat baik dan tulus.Yang paling utama adalah untuk perbaikan diri sendiri.<o:p></o:p></span></span></div>
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<span style="color: #444444; font-family: "georgia" , "times new roman" , serif;"><br /></span></div>
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<span style="color: #444444; font-family: "georgia" , "times new roman" , serif; font-size: small;"><b><span style="color: #454545; mso-bidi-font-family: "Times New Roman"; mso-fareast-language: EN-GB;">TIPS:</span></b><span style="color: #454545; mso-bidi-font-family: "Times New Roman"; mso-fareast-language: EN-GB;"> Niat ini akan tercermin pada wawancara beasiswa, pendaftaran kampus hingga ketika selesai studi. Ceritakan niat ini pada siapa saja yang bertanya apa rencana kamu di masa depan. Pencari beasiswa yang memiliki niat sosial pasti akan lebih diperhatikan. Seleksi-seleksi yang ada berguna untuk memilih orang yang pantas dan akan memberi dampak bagi sekitarnya ketika diberikan beasiswa tersebut. <o:p></o:p></span></span></div>
<div class="MsoNormal" style="text-align: justify;">
<span style="color: #444444; font-family: "georgia" , "times new roman" , serif;"><br /></span></div>
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<span style="color: #454545; mso-bidi-font-family: "Times New Roman"; mso-fareast-language: EN-GB;"><span style="color: #444444; font-family: "georgia" , "times new roman" , serif; font-size: small;">2. Plan your preparation<o:p></o:p></span></span></div>
<ul style="margin-top: 0in;" type="disc">
<li class="MsoNormal"><span style="mso-bidi-font-family: "Times New Roman"; mso-fareast-font-family: "Times New Roman"; mso-fareast-language: EN-GB;"><span style="color: #444444; font-family: "georgia" , "times new roman" , serif; font-size: small;">Plan your target – program, jurusan, universitas, negara tujuan, beasiswa<o:p></o:p></span></span></li>
<li class="MsoNormal"><span style="mso-bidi-font-family: "Times New Roman"; mso-fareast-font-family: "Times New Roman"; mso-fareast-language: EN-GB;"><span style="color: #444444; font-family: "georgia" , "times new roman" , serif; font-size: small;">Plan your time – kapan semua itu dibuka dan ditutup, serta buat estimasi waktu untuk mempersiapkan semua berkas dan persyaratannya.<o:p></o:p></span></span></li>
<li class="MsoNormal"><span style="mso-bidi-font-family: "Times New Roman"; mso-fareast-font-family: "Times New Roman"; mso-fareast-language: EN-GB;"><span style="color: #444444; font-family: "georgia" , "times new roman" , serif; font-size: small;">Plan your moves – buat list apa-apa saja yang harus dikerjakan dan buat timetable<o:p></o:p></span></span></li>
<li class="MsoNormal"><span style="mso-bidi-font-family: "Times New Roman"; mso-fareast-font-family: "Times New Roman"; mso-fareast-language: EN-GB;"><span style="color: #444444; font-family: "georgia" , "times new roman" , serif; font-size: small;">Plan your back up plan – Penting! Because life does not always got the way we want to.<o:p></o:p></span></span></li>
</ul>
<div class="MsoNormal" style="text-align: justify;">
<span style="color: #444444; font-family: "georgia" , "times new roman" , serif; font-size: small;"><b><span style="color: #454545; mso-bidi-font-family: "Times New Roman"; mso-fareast-language: EN-GB;">TIPS: </span></b><span style="color: #454545; mso-bidi-font-family: "Times New Roman"; mso-fareast-language: EN-GB;">Buat progress journal / progress board. Setiap orang punya pace masing-masing untuk menyiapkan semuanya tapi dengan adanya dua hal tersebut bisa mengukur kemajuan dan menghindari ketertinggalan. Mengenali diri sendiri dan mengukur kemampuan diri juga penting. Target waktu dan tujuan orang berbeda-beda.<o:p></o:p></span></span></div>
<div class="MsoNormal" style="text-align: justify;">
<span style="color: #444444; font-family: "georgia" , "times new roman" , serif;"><br /></span></div>
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<span style="color: #454545; mso-bidi-font-family: "Times New Roman"; mso-fareast-language: EN-GB;"><span style="color: #444444; font-family: "georgia" , "times new roman" , serif; font-size: small;">3. Prepare and Practice<o:p></o:p></span></span></div>
<div class="MsoNormal" style="text-align: justify;">
<span style="color: #454545; mso-bidi-font-family: "Times New Roman"; mso-fareast-language: EN-GB;"><span style="color: #444444; font-family: "georgia" , "times new roman" , serif; font-size: small;">Siapkan semua secara detail dan sesuai persyaratan. Kemudian practice. Latihan sesering mungkin entah itu persiapan bahasa, wawancara beasiswa, making motivation letter.<o:p></o:p></span></span></div>
<div class="MsoNormal" style="text-align: justify;">
<span style="color: #444444; font-family: "georgia" , "times new roman" , serif;"><br /></span></div>
<div class="MsoNormal" style="text-align: justify;">
<span style="color: #454545; mso-bidi-font-family: "Times New Roman"; mso-fareast-language: EN-GB;"><span style="color: #444444; font-family: "georgia" , "times new roman" , serif; font-size: small;">4. Setelah eksekusi, EVALUASI. Kenali diri masing-masing. Apa yang menjadi Strength, Weakness, Opportunity dan Threats.<o:p></o:p></span></span></div>
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<span style="color: #444444; font-family: "georgia" , "times new roman" , serif;"><br /></span></div>
<div class="MsoNormal" style="text-align: justify;">
<span style="color: #454545; mso-bidi-font-family: "Times New Roman"; mso-fareast-language: EN-GB;"><span style="color: #444444; font-family: "georgia" , "times new roman" , serif; font-size: small;">Sementara itu,<o:p></o:p></span></span></div>
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<span style="color: #444444; font-family: "georgia" , "times new roman" , serif;"></span><br />
<a name='more'></a><span style="color: #444444; font-family: "georgia" , "times new roman" , serif;"><br /></span></div>
<div class="MsoNormal" style="text-align: justify;">
<span style="color: #454545; mso-bidi-font-family: "Times New Roman"; mso-fareast-language: EN-GB;"><span style="color: #444444; font-family: "georgia" , "times new roman" , serif; font-size: small;">5. Find your teammates coach. Kelilingi dengan orang2 dengan visi dan tujuan yang sama guna mengingatkan, memotivasi, mengawani. Find your coach karena mereka yang lebih dulu berhasil sudah punya pengalaman dan BERHASIL melewati semua persiapan dan seleksi-seleksi beasiswa sehingga mereka sudah tahu bagaimana mempersiapkannya.<o:p></o:p></span></span></div>
<div class="MsoNormal" style="text-align: justify;">
<span style="color: #444444; font-family: "georgia" , "times new roman" , serif;"><br /></span></div>
<div class="MsoNormal" style="text-align: justify;">
<span style="color: #454545; mso-bidi-font-family: "Times New Roman"; mso-fareast-language: EN-GB;"><span style="color: #444444; font-family: "georgia" , "times new roman" , serif; font-size: small;">6. Pray<o:p></o:p></span></span></div>
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<span style="color: #454545; mso-bidi-font-family: "Times New Roman"; mso-fareast-language: EN-GB;"><span style="color: #444444; font-family: "georgia" , "times new roman" , serif; font-size: small;">Manusia tidak punya kuasa sedikitpun atas apapun yang akan terjadi di masa depan. Tingkatkan ibadah perbanyak doa, mintai restu orang tua saudara dan lain-lain dan bersikap baiklah pada mereka. Namun berdoalah dengan optimis karena doa yang didasari dengan niat yang tulus (liat poin 1) in syaa Allah akan dimudahkan jalannya.<o:p></o:p></span></span></div>
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<span style="color: #444444; font-family: "georgia" , "times new roman" , serif;"><br /></span></div>
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<span style="color: #454545; mso-bidi-font-family: "Times New Roman"; mso-fareast-language: EN-GB;"><span style="color: #444444; font-family: "georgia" , "times new roman" , serif; font-size: small;">7. Be active and do more effort<o:p></o:p></span></span></div>
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<span style="color: #454545; mso-bidi-font-family: "Times New Roman"; mso-fareast-language: EN-GB;"><span style="color: #444444; font-family: "georgia" , "times new roman" , serif; font-size: small;">Biasakan untuk mencari informasi sebanyak-banyaknya dengan cara-cara yang ada. Ketika ada hal yang kurang jelas, coba cari dan baca Frequently Asked Questions yang ada di website pemberi beasiswa. Jika hal tersebut belum ditanyakan atau belum ditemukan jawabannya, tanyakan pada orang yang memiliki kapasitas untuk menjawab pertanyaan teman-teman Ini juga sangat berguna untuk melatih diri. Kebiasaan untuk ‘disuapi’ tidak akan membuat teman-teman survive kuliah di luar negeri.<o:p></o:p></span></span></div>
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<span style="color: #444444; font-family: "georgia" , "times new roman" , serif;"><br /></span></div>
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<span style="color: #444444; font-family: "georgia" , "times new roman" , serif; font-size: small;"><b><span style="color: #454545; mso-bidi-font-family: "Times New Roman"; mso-fareast-language: EN-GB;">Beasiswa LPDP</span></b><span style="color: #454545; mso-bidi-font-family: "Times New Roman"; mso-fareast-language: EN-GB;"><o:p></o:p></span></span></div>
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<span style="color: #444444; font-family: "georgia" , "times new roman" , serif;"><br /></span></div>
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<span style="color: #454545; mso-bidi-font-family: "Times New Roman"; mso-fareast-language: EN-GB;"><span style="color: #444444; font-family: "georgia" , "times new roman" , serif; font-size: small;">1. Berkas yang perlu disiapkan:<o:p></o:p></span></span></div>
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<span style="color: #454545; mso-bidi-font-family: "Times New Roman"; mso-fareast-language: EN-GB;"><span style="color: #444444; font-family: "georgia" , "times new roman" , serif; font-size: small;">a. Surat keterangan sehat dari RSUD<o:p></o:p></span></span></div>
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<span style="color: #454545; mso-bidi-font-family: "Times New Roman"; mso-fareast-language: EN-GB;"><span style="color: #444444; font-family: "georgia" , "times new roman" , serif; font-size: small;">b. Esai Rencana Studi<o:p></o:p></span></span></div>
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<span style="color: #454545; mso-bidi-font-family: "Times New Roman"; mso-fareast-language: EN-GB;"><span style="color: #444444; font-family: "georgia" , "times new roman" , serif; font-size: small;">c. Esai Kontribusi untuk Indonesia<o:p></o:p></span></span></div>
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<span style="color: #454545; mso-bidi-font-family: "Times New Roman"; mso-fareast-language: EN-GB;"><span style="color: #444444; font-family: "georgia" , "times new roman" , serif; font-size: small;">d. Sertifikat bahasa asing<o:p></o:p></span></span></div>
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<span style="color: #454545; mso-bidi-font-family: "Times New Roman"; mso-fareast-language: EN-GB;"><span style="color: #444444; font-family: "georgia" , "times new roman" , serif; font-size: small;">e. Surat rekomendasi<o:p></o:p></span></span></div>
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<span style="color: #454545; mso-bidi-font-family: "Times New Roman"; mso-fareast-language: EN-GB;"><span style="color: #444444; font-family: "georgia" , "times new roman" , serif; font-size: small;">f. IPK >3.00 skala 4.00<o:p></o:p></span></span></div>
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<span style="color: #444444; font-family: "georgia" , "times new roman" , serif;"><br /></span></div>
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<span style="color: #454545; mso-bidi-font-family: "Times New Roman"; mso-fareast-language: EN-GB;"><span style="color: #444444; font-family: "georgia" , "times new roman" , serif; font-size: small;">cek lebih lengkap di www.lpdp.kemenkeu.go.id<o:p></o:p></span></span></div>
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<span style="color: #444444; font-family: "georgia" , "times new roman" , serif;"><br /></span></div>
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<span style="color: #454545; mso-bidi-font-family: "Times New Roman"; mso-fareast-language: EN-GB;"><span style="color: #444444; font-family: "georgia" , "times new roman" , serif; font-size: small;">2. Proses seleksi dan bagaimana menyiapkannya:<o:p></o:p></span></span></div>
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<span style="color: #454545; mso-bidi-font-family: "Times New Roman"; mso-fareast-language: EN-GB;"><span style="color: #444444; font-family: "georgia" , "times new roman" , serif; font-size: small;">a. Seleksi administratif = perhatikan detail dan kelengkapan berkas<o:p></o:p></span></span></div>
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<span style="color: #454545; mso-bidi-font-family: "Times New Roman"; mso-fareast-language: EN-GB;"><span style="color: #444444; font-family: "georgia" , "times new roman" , serif; font-size: small;">b. Seleksi substantif = persiapkan pertanyaan-pertanyaan berikut jawabannya kemudian latih dengan bantuan seorang coach. Antisipasi pertanyaan-pertanyaan personal dan akademis. Ikuti isu-isu terkini dan kontemplasikan apa solusi yang bisa ditawarkan.<o:p></o:p></span></span></div>
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<span style="color: #444444; font-family: "georgia" , "times new roman" , serif;"><br /></span></div>
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<span style="color: #454545; mso-bidi-font-family: "Times New Roman"; mso-fareast-language: EN-GB;"><span style="color: #444444; font-family: "georgia" , "times new roman" , serif; font-size: small;">3. Fasilitas yang didapatkan dari beasiswa LPDP<o:p></o:p></span></span></div>
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<span style="color: #454545; mso-bidi-font-family: "Times New Roman"; mso-fareast-language: EN-GB;"><span style="color: #444444; font-family: "georgia" , "times new roman" , serif; font-size: small;">Variety of allowance.<o:p></o:p></span></span></div>
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<span style="color: #454545; mso-bidi-font-family: "Times New Roman"; mso-fareast-language: EN-GB;"><span style="color: #444444; font-family: "georgia" , "times new roman" , serif; font-size: small;">Persiapan Keberangkatan.<o:p></o:p></span></span></div>
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<span style="color: #454545; mso-bidi-font-family: "Times New Roman"; mso-fareast-language: EN-GB;"><span style="color: #444444; font-family: "georgia" , "times new roman" , serif; font-size: small;">Network (as awardee and alumni)<o:p></o:p></span></span></div>
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<span style="color: #444444; font-family: "georgia" , "times new roman" , serif; font-size: small;"><span style="color: #454545; mso-bidi-font-family: "Times New Roman"; mso-fareast-language: EN-GB;">Research and conference funds.</span><span style="color: #454545;">💪🏻😄💧💧</span><span style="color: #454545; mso-bidi-font-family: "Times New Roman"; mso-fareast-language: EN-GB;"><o:p></o:p></span></span></div>
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<span style="color: #444444; font-family: "georgia" , "times new roman" , serif;"><br /></span></div>
<div class="MsoNormal">
<span style="color: #454545; mso-bidi-font-family: "Times New Roman"; mso-fareast-language: EN-GB;"><span style="color: #444444; font-family: "georgia" , "times new roman" , serif; font-size: small;">Sebagai penutup, usaha mencari beasiswa dan mempersiapkan studi ke luar negeri bukan sebuah proses yang mudah. Namun proses ini menjadi penting untuk mengenali diri sendiri dan meningkatkan kualitas diri. So, enjoy every step of the process.<o:p></o:p></span></span></div>
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<span style="color: #444444; font-family: "georgia" , "times new roman" , serif;"><br /></span></div>
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<span style="color: #454545; mso-bidi-font-family: "Times New Roman"; mso-fareast-language: EN-GB;"><span style="color: #444444; font-family: "georgia" , "times new roman" , serif; font-size: small;">Pada masa perkuliahan nanti pun, belajar, tugas-tugas, ujian, dan kehidupan di luar negeri tidak akan menjadi mudah. Namun, dengan sudah melewati perjuangan untuk mendapatkannya, maka studi pun menjadi hal yang lebih disyukuri.<o:p></o:p></span></span></div>
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<span style="color: #454545; mso-bidi-font-family: "Times New Roman"; mso-fareast-language: EN-GB;"><span style="color: #444444; font-family: "georgia" , "times new roman" , serif; font-size: small;">Menikmati proses ini juga menjadikan teman-teman lebih memahami bahwa setiap orang memliki pace yang berbeda dalam hidup. Ada orang-orang yang baru satu kali mendaftar beasiswa kemudian lulus. Sementara kita mungkin menghadapi kegagalan, penolakan dan harus mencoba berkali-kali baru kemudian sukses, lolos dan mendapatkan apa yang kita mau.<o:p></o:p></span></span></div>
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<span style="color: #444444; font-family: "georgia" , "times new roman" , serif;"><br /></span></div>
<blockquote class="tr_bq">
<span style="color: #454545; mso-bidi-font-family: "Times New Roman"; mso-fareast-language: EN-GB;"><span style="color: #444444; font-family: "georgia" , "times new roman" , serif; font-size: small;">Bagi teman-teman yang mengalami
kegagalan, saya sangat support untuk mempersiapkan lagi semuanya dari awal.
Mungkin tidak semua langkah-langkah di tulisan ini efektif untuk teman-teman.
Tapi terus coba lagi dan coba lagi. Habiskan jatah gagal teman-teman, simply
karena kita tidak tahu percobaan yang mana dan yang keberapa yang membawa kita
ke keberhasilan. Semangat!</span></span></blockquote>
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<span style="color: #444444; font-family: "georgia" , "times new roman" , serif;"><br /></span></div>
<div class="MsoNormal">
<span style="color: #444444; font-family: "georgia" , "times new roman" , serif;"><br /></span></div>
<div class="MsoNormal">
<span style="color: #454545; mso-bidi-font-family: "Times New Roman"; mso-fareast-language: EN-GB;"><span style="color: #444444; font-family: "georgia" , "times new roman" , serif; font-size: small;">Pada Kopdar di Sahabat Beasiswa chapter Depok tanggal 28 Juli kemarin, teman-teman antusias untuk ikut <b>berdiskusi</b> di akhir penjelasan saya. Berikut akan saya coba rangkum menjadi tiga poin saja untuk sekaligus menutup tulisan saya kali ini.<o:p></o:p></span></span></div>
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<span style="color: #444444; font-family: "georgia" , "times new roman" , serif;"><br /></span></div>
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<span style="color: #454545; mso-bidi-font-family: "Times New Roman"; mso-fareast-language: EN-GB;"><span style="color: #444444; font-family: "georgia" , "times new roman" , serif; font-size: small;">1. Manakah yang lebih sulit ketika mempersiapkan studi dan beasiswa atau ketika menjalani studi di luar negeri itu sendiri?<o:p></o:p></span></span></div>
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<span style="color: #444444; font-family: "georgia" , "times new roman" , serif;"><br /></span></div>
<div class="MsoNormal">
<span style="color: #454545; mso-bidi-font-family: "Times New Roman"; mso-fareast-language: EN-GB;"><span style="color: #444444; font-family: "georgia" , "times new roman" , serif; font-size: small;">Bagi saya lebih sulit ketika menjalani studi di luar negeri dibandingkan dengan masa-masa menyiapkannya. Karena studi yang dijalani berada di lingkungan, bahasa, sistem belajar dan perkuliahan juga budaya yang berbeda. Hal-hal tersebut memaksa saya untuk beradaptasi secara lebih. Terutama pada sistem belajar karena perbedaan sistem yang jauh dengan yang saya alami di program sarjana di dalam negeri. Saya merasa ‘kaget’ dan kesulitan namun saat itu saya berpikir hal ini harus dilawan seperti perasaan tidak bisa, malu, takut salah, dan lain-lain. Karena hal tersebut hanya ada di dalam kepala kita.<o:p></o:p></span></span></div>
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<span style="color: #444444; font-family: "georgia" , "times new roman" , serif;"><br /></span></div>
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<span style="color: #454545; mso-bidi-font-family: "Times New Roman"; mso-fareast-language: EN-GB;"><span style="color: #444444; font-family: "georgia" , "times new roman" , serif; font-size: small;">2. Apa yang harus dilakukan bagi kami pencari beasiswa dan ingin meneruskan studi di luar negeri tapi juga bekerja secara full time?<o:p></o:p></span></span></div>
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<span style="color: #444444; font-family: "georgia" , "times new roman" , serif;"><br /></span></div>
<div class="MsoNormal">
<span style="color: #454545; mso-bidi-font-family: "Times New Roman"; mso-fareast-language: EN-GB;"><span style="color: #444444; font-family: "georgia" , "times new roman" , serif; font-size: small;">Buat timeline dua kali lebih dulu dari teman-teman freshgraduate yang waktu dan tenaganya masih banyak. Lawan perasaan malas dan sisihkan waktu setiap hari meskipun sedikit untuk mempersiapkan berkas atau latihan. Kuatkan niat, persiapkan jauh-jauh hari dan minta support dari atasan dan rekan-rekan di tempat kerja, lalu team up dengan teman-teman fresh graduate / lebih muda untuk saling support.<o:p></o:p></span></span></div>
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<span style="color: #444444; font-family: "georgia" , "times new roman" , serif;"><br /></span></div>
<div class="MsoNormal">
<span style="color: #454545; mso-bidi-font-family: "Times New Roman"; mso-fareast-language: EN-GB;"><span style="color: #444444; font-family: "georgia" , "times new roman" , serif; font-size: small;">3. Apakah studi di luar negeri itu mudah? Karena banyak sekali postingan di dunia maya tentang para pelajar di luar negeri yang sedang berliburan?<o:p></o:p></span></span></div>
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<span style="color: #444444; font-family: "georgia" , "times new roman" , serif;"><br /></span></div>
<div class="MsoNormal">
<span style="color: #454545; mso-bidi-font-family: "Times New Roman"; mso-fareast-language: EN-GB;"><span style="color: #444444; font-family: "georgia" , "times new roman" , serif; font-size: small;">Percayalah, hal itu hanya pada yang nampak, dan terlihat menyenangkan. Itu hanyak bentuk promosi agar teman-teman pun bersemangat untuk memproses persiapan studi teman-teman. Jika yang mereka posting adalah deadline tugas yang tidak ada hentinya, final exams yang jadwalnya berdekatan, komentar professor yang tajam dan menjatuhkan, teman-teman yang sangat independent, belum lagi kadang musim dan cuaca yang tidak bersahabat sehingga kadang merusak mood dan rencana belajar, maka teman-teman akan balik arah dan tidak tertarik untuk ikut studi di luar negeri.<o:p></o:p></span></span></div>
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<span style="color: #444444; font-family: "georgia" , "times new roman" , serif;"><br /></span></div>
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<span style="color: #454545; mso-bidi-font-family: "Times New Roman"; mso-fareast-language: EN-GB;"><span style="color: #444444; font-family: "georgia" , "times new roman" , serif; font-size: small;">Singkatnya, studi di luar negeri memang itu tidak mudah, tapi juga bukan berarti tidak bisa dinikmati. Banyak pelajaran yang bisa diraih dan pada akhirnya semua worth the struggle.<o:p></o:p></span></span></div>
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<span style="color: #444444; font-family: "georgia" , "times new roman" , serif; font-size: small;"><b>*</b>tulisan ini adalah draft saya untuk berbicara di Kopdar Sahabat Beasiswa Chapter Depok 28 Juli 2018 di Artivator, Depok. Terima kasih sudah mengajak saya untuk bercerita dan berdiskusi! Selamat berjuang!</span><br />
<br />
<span style="color: #444444; font-family: "georgia" , "times new roman" , serif; font-size: small;"><br /></span> <b><span style="color: #444444; font-family: "georgia" , "times new roman" , serif; font-size: small;">Indah Khairunnisah Marwan<o:p></o:p></span></b></div>
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<span style="color: #444444; font-family: "georgia" , "times new roman" , serif; font-size: small;">Arab UI 2010<o:p></o:p></span></div>
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<span style="color: #444444; font-family: "georgia" , "times new roman" , serif; font-size: small;">Alumnae Beasiswa LPDP Kementrian Keuangan PK-71 Cikal Nagari<o:p></o:p></span></div>
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<span style="color: #444444; font-family: "georgia" , "times new roman" , serif; font-size: small;">MA in Near & Middle Eastern Studies di SOAS, University of London<o:p></o:p></span></div>
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<w:LsdException Locked="false" Priority="39" SemiHidden="true"
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<span style="color: #444444; font-family: "georgia" , "times new roman" , serif; font-size: small;"><a href="mailto:indahmarwan@gmail.com"><span style="line-height: 107%;">indahmarwan@gmail.com</span></a><span style="line-height: 107%;"><o:p></o:p></span></span></div>
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Name="Document Map"/>
<w:LsdException Locked="false" SemiHidden="true" UnhideWhenUsed="true"
Name="Plain Text"/>
<w:LsdException Locked="false" SemiHidden="true" UnhideWhenUsed="true"
Name="E-mail Signature"/>
<w:LsdException Locked="false" SemiHidden="true" UnhideWhenUsed="true"
Name="HTML Top of Form"/>
<w:LsdException Locked="false" SemiHidden="true" UnhideWhenUsed="true"
Name="HTML Bottom of Form"/>
<w:LsdException Locked="false" SemiHidden="true" UnhideWhenUsed="true"
Name="Normal (Web)"/>
<w:LsdException Locked="false" SemiHidden="true" UnhideWhenUsed="true"
Name="HTML Acronym"/>
<w:LsdException Locked="false" SemiHidden="true" UnhideWhenUsed="true"
Name="HTML Address"/>
<w:LsdException Locked="false" SemiHidden="true" UnhideWhenUsed="true"
Name="HTML Cite"/>
<w:LsdException Locked="false" SemiHidden="true" UnhideWhenUsed="true"
Name="HTML Code"/>
<w:LsdException Locked="false" SemiHidden="true" UnhideWhenUsed="true"
Name="HTML Definition"/>
<w:LsdException Locked="false" SemiHidden="true" UnhideWhenUsed="true"
Name="HTML Keyboard"/>
<w:LsdException Locked="false" SemiHidden="true" UnhideWhenUsed="true"
Name="HTML Preformatted"/>
<w:LsdException Locked="false" SemiHidden="true" UnhideWhenUsed="true"
Name="HTML Sample"/>
<w:LsdException Locked="false" SemiHidden="true" UnhideWhenUsed="true"
Name="HTML Typewriter"/>
<w:LsdException Locked="false" SemiHidden="true" UnhideWhenUsed="true"
Name="HTML Variable"/>
<w:LsdException Locked="false" SemiHidden="true" UnhideWhenUsed="true"
Name="Normal Table"/>
<w:LsdException Locked="false" SemiHidden="true" UnhideWhenUsed="true"
Name="annotation subject"/>
<w:LsdException Locked="false" SemiHidden="true" UnhideWhenUsed="true"
Name="No List"/>
<w:LsdException Locked="false" SemiHidden="true" UnhideWhenUsed="true"
Name="Outline List 1"/>
<w:LsdException Locked="false" SemiHidden="true" UnhideWhenUsed="true"
Name="Outline List 2"/>
<w:LsdException Locked="false" SemiHidden="true" UnhideWhenUsed="true"
Name="Outline List 3"/>
<w:LsdException Locked="false" SemiHidden="true" UnhideWhenUsed="true"
Name="Table Simple 1"/>
<w:LsdException Locked="false" SemiHidden="true" UnhideWhenUsed="true"
Name="Table Simple 2"/>
<w:LsdException Locked="false" SemiHidden="true" UnhideWhenUsed="true"
Name="Table Simple 3"/>
<w:LsdException Locked="false" SemiHidden="true" UnhideWhenUsed="true"
Name="Table Classic 1"/>
<w:LsdException Locked="false" SemiHidden="true" UnhideWhenUsed="true"
Name="Table Classic 2"/>
<w:LsdException Locked="false" SemiHidden="true" UnhideWhenUsed="true"
Name="Table Classic 3"/>
<w:LsdException Locked="false" SemiHidden="true" UnhideWhenUsed="true"
Name="Table Classic 4"/>
<w:LsdException Locked="false" SemiHidden="true" UnhideWhenUsed="true"
Name="Table Colorful 1"/>
<w:LsdException Locked="false" SemiHidden="true" UnhideWhenUsed="true"
Name="Table Colorful 2"/>
<w:LsdException Locked="false" SemiHidden="true" UnhideWhenUsed="true"
Name="Table Colorful 3"/>
<w:LsdException Locked="false" SemiHidden="true" UnhideWhenUsed="true"
Name="Table Columns 1"/>
<w:LsdException Locked="false" SemiHidden="true" UnhideWhenUsed="true"
Name="Table Columns 2"/>
<w:LsdException Locked="false" SemiHidden="true" UnhideWhenUsed="true"
Name="Table Columns 3"/>
<w:LsdException Locked="false" SemiHidden="true" UnhideWhenUsed="true"
Name="Table Columns 4"/>
<w:LsdException Locked="false" SemiHidden="true" UnhideWhenUsed="true"
Name="Table Columns 5"/>
<w:LsdException Locked="false" SemiHidden="true" UnhideWhenUsed="true"
Name="Table Grid 1"/>
<w:LsdException Locked="false" SemiHidden="true" UnhideWhenUsed="true"
Name="Table Grid 2"/>
<w:LsdException Locked="false" SemiHidden="true" UnhideWhenUsed="true"
Name="Table Grid 3"/>
<w:LsdException Locked="false" SemiHidden="true" UnhideWhenUsed="true"
Name="Table Grid 4"/>
<w:LsdException Locked="false" SemiHidden="true" UnhideWhenUsed="true"
Name="Table Grid 5"/>
<w:LsdException Locked="false" SemiHidden="true" UnhideWhenUsed="true"
Name="Table Grid 6"/>
<w:LsdException Locked="false" SemiHidden="true" UnhideWhenUsed="true"
Name="Table Grid 7"/>
<w:LsdException Locked="false" SemiHidden="true" UnhideWhenUsed="true"
Name="Table Grid 8"/>
<w:LsdException Locked="false" SemiHidden="true" UnhideWhenUsed="true"
Name="Table List 1"/>
<w:LsdException Locked="false" SemiHidden="true" UnhideWhenUsed="true"
Name="Table List 2"/>
<w:LsdException Locked="false" SemiHidden="true" UnhideWhenUsed="true"
Name="Table List 3"/>
<w:LsdException Locked="false" SemiHidden="true" UnhideWhenUsed="true"
Name="Table List 4"/>
<w:LsdException Locked="false" SemiHidden="true" UnhideWhenUsed="true"
Name="Table List 5"/>
<w:LsdException Locked="false" SemiHidden="true" UnhideWhenUsed="true"
Name="Table List 6"/>
<w:LsdException Locked="false" SemiHidden="true" UnhideWhenUsed="true"
Name="Table List 7"/>
<w:LsdException Locked="false" SemiHidden="true" UnhideWhenUsed="true"
Name="Table List 8"/>
<w:LsdException Locked="false" SemiHidden="true" UnhideWhenUsed="true"
Name="Table 3D effects 1"/>
<w:LsdException Locked="false" SemiHidden="true" UnhideWhenUsed="true"
Name="Table 3D effects 2"/>
<w:LsdException Locked="false" SemiHidden="true" UnhideWhenUsed="true"
Name="Table 3D effects 3"/>
<w:LsdException Locked="false" SemiHidden="true" UnhideWhenUsed="true"
Name="Table Contemporary"/>
<w:LsdException Locked="false" SemiHidden="true" UnhideWhenUsed="true"
Name="Table Elegant"/>
<w:LsdException Locked="false" SemiHidden="true" UnhideWhenUsed="true"
Name="Table Professional"/>
<w:LsdException Locked="false" SemiHidden="true" UnhideWhenUsed="true"
Name="Table Subtle 1"/>
<w:LsdException Locked="false" SemiHidden="true" UnhideWhenUsed="true"
Name="Table Subtle 2"/>
<w:LsdException Locked="false" SemiHidden="true" UnhideWhenUsed="true"
Name="Table Web 1"/>
<w:LsdException Locked="false" SemiHidden="true" UnhideWhenUsed="true"
Name="Table Web 2"/>
<w:LsdException Locked="false" SemiHidden="true" UnhideWhenUsed="true"
Name="Table Web 3"/>
<w:LsdException Locked="false" SemiHidden="true" UnhideWhenUsed="true"
Name="Balloon Text"/>
<w:LsdException Locked="false" Priority="39" Name="Table Grid"/>
<w:LsdException Locked="false" SemiHidden="true" UnhideWhenUsed="true"
Name="Table Theme"/>
<w:LsdException Locked="false" SemiHidden="true" UnhideWhenUsed="true"
Name="Note Level 1"/>
<w:LsdException Locked="false" SemiHidden="true" UnhideWhenUsed="true"
Name="Note Level 2"/>
<w:LsdException Locked="false" SemiHidden="true" UnhideWhenUsed="true"
Name="Note Level 3"/>
<w:LsdException Locked="false" SemiHidden="true" UnhideWhenUsed="true"
Name="Note Level 4"/>
<w:LsdException Locked="false" SemiHidden="true" UnhideWhenUsed="true"
Name="Note Level 5"/>
<w:LsdException Locked="false" SemiHidden="true" UnhideWhenUsed="true"
Name="Note Level 6"/>
<w:LsdException Locked="false" SemiHidden="true" UnhideWhenUsed="true"
Name="Note Level 7"/>
<w:LsdException Locked="false" SemiHidden="true" UnhideWhenUsed="true"
Name="Note Level 8"/>
<w:LsdException Locked="false" SemiHidden="true" UnhideWhenUsed="true"
Name="Note Level 9"/>
<w:LsdException Locked="false" SemiHidden="true" Name="Placeholder Text"/>
<w:LsdException Locked="false" Priority="1" QFormat="true" Name="No Spacing"/>
<w:LsdException Locked="false" Priority="60" Name="Light Shading"/>
<w:LsdException Locked="false" Priority="61" Name="Light List"/>
<w:LsdException Locked="false" Priority="62" Name="Light Grid"/>
<w:LsdException Locked="false" Priority="63" Name="Medium Shading 1"/>
<w:LsdException Locked="false" Priority="64" Name="Medium Shading 2"/>
<w:LsdException Locked="false" Priority="65" Name="Medium List 1"/>
<w:LsdException Locked="false" Priority="66" Name="Medium List 2"/>
<w:LsdException Locked="false" Priority="67" Name="Medium Grid 1"/>
<w:LsdException Locked="false" Priority="68" Name="Medium Grid 2"/>
<w:LsdException Locked="false" Priority="69" Name="Medium Grid 3"/>
<w:LsdException Locked="false" Priority="70" Name="Dark List"/>
<w:LsdException Locked="false" Priority="71" Name="Colorful Shading"/>
<w:LsdException Locked="false" Priority="72" Name="Colorful List"/>
<w:LsdException Locked="false" Priority="73" Name="Colorful Grid"/>
<w:LsdException Locked="false" Priority="60" Name="Light Shading Accent 1"/>
<w:LsdException Locked="false" Priority="61" Name="Light List Accent 1"/>
<w:LsdException Locked="false" Priority="62" Name="Light Grid Accent 1"/>
<w:LsdException Locked="false" Priority="63" Name="Medium Shading 1 Accent 1"/>
<w:LsdException Locked="false" Priority="64" Name="Medium Shading 2 Accent 1"/>
<w:LsdException Locked="false" Priority="65" Name="Medium List 1 Accent 1"/>
<w:LsdException Locked="false" SemiHidden="true" Name="Revision"/>
<w:LsdException Locked="false" Priority="34" QFormat="true"
Name="List Paragraph"/>
<w:LsdException Locked="false" Priority="29" QFormat="true" Name="Quote"/>
<w:LsdException Locked="false" Priority="30" QFormat="true"
Name="Intense Quote"/>
<w:LsdException Locked="false" Priority="66" Name="Medium List 2 Accent 1"/>
<w:LsdException Locked="false" Priority="67" Name="Medium Grid 1 Accent 1"/>
<w:LsdException Locked="false" Priority="68" Name="Medium Grid 2 Accent 1"/>
<w:LsdException Locked="false" Priority="69" Name="Medium Grid 3 Accent 1"/>
<w:LsdException Locked="false" Priority="70" Name="Dark List Accent 1"/>
<w:LsdException Locked="false" Priority="71" Name="Colorful Shading Accent 1"/>
<w:LsdException Locked="false" Priority="72" Name="Colorful List Accent 1"/>
<w:LsdException Locked="false" Priority="73" Name="Colorful Grid Accent 1"/>
<w:LsdException Locked="false" Priority="60" Name="Light Shading Accent 2"/>
<w:LsdException Locked="false" Priority="61" Name="Light List Accent 2"/>
<w:LsdException Locked="false" Priority="62" Name="Light Grid Accent 2"/>
<w:LsdException Locked="false" Priority="63" Name="Medium Shading 1 Accent 2"/>
<w:LsdException Locked="false" Priority="64" Name="Medium Shading 2 Accent 2"/>
<w:LsdException Locked="false" Priority="65" Name="Medium List 1 Accent 2"/>
<w:LsdException Locked="false" Priority="66" Name="Medium List 2 Accent 2"/>
<w:LsdException Locked="false" Priority="67" Name="Medium Grid 1 Accent 2"/>
<w:LsdException Locked="false" Priority="68" Name="Medium Grid 2 Accent 2"/>
<w:LsdException Locked="false" Priority="69" Name="Medium Grid 3 Accent 2"/>
<w:LsdException Locked="false" Priority="70" Name="Dark List Accent 2"/>
<w:LsdException Locked="false" Priority="71" Name="Colorful Shading Accent 2"/>
<w:LsdException Locked="false" Priority="72" Name="Colorful List Accent 2"/>
<w:LsdException Locked="false" Priority="73" Name="Colorful Grid Accent 2"/>
<w:LsdException Locked="false" Priority="60" Name="Light Shading Accent 3"/>
<w:LsdException Locked="false" Priority="61" Name="Light List Accent 3"/>
<w:LsdException Locked="false" Priority="62" Name="Light Grid Accent 3"/>
<w:LsdException Locked="false" Priority="63" Name="Medium Shading 1 Accent 3"/>
<w:LsdException Locked="false" Priority="64" Name="Medium Shading 2 Accent 3"/>
<w:LsdException Locked="false" Priority="65" Name="Medium List 1 Accent 3"/>
<w:LsdException Locked="false" Priority="66" Name="Medium List 2 Accent 3"/>
<w:LsdException Locked="false" Priority="67" Name="Medium Grid 1 Accent 3"/>
<w:LsdException Locked="false" Priority="68" Name="Medium Grid 2 Accent 3"/>
<w:LsdException Locked="false" Priority="69" Name="Medium Grid 3 Accent 3"/>
<w:LsdException Locked="false" Priority="70" Name="Dark List Accent 3"/>
<w:LsdException Locked="false" Priority="71" Name="Colorful Shading Accent 3"/>
<w:LsdException Locked="false" Priority="72" Name="Colorful List Accent 3"/>
<w:LsdException Locked="false" Priority="73" Name="Colorful Grid Accent 3"/>
<w:LsdException Locked="false" Priority="60" Name="Light Shading Accent 4"/>
<w:LsdException Locked="false" Priority="61" Name="Light List Accent 4"/>
<w:LsdException Locked="false" Priority="62" Name="Light Grid Accent 4"/>
<w:LsdException Locked="false" Priority="63" Name="Medium Shading 1 Accent 4"/>
<w:LsdException Locked="false" Priority="64" Name="Medium Shading 2 Accent 4"/>
<w:LsdException Locked="false" Priority="65" Name="Medium List 1 Accent 4"/>
<w:LsdException Locked="false" Priority="66" Name="Medium List 2 Accent 4"/>
<w:LsdException Locked="false" Priority="67" Name="Medium Grid 1 Accent 4"/>
<w:LsdException Locked="false" Priority="68" Name="Medium Grid 2 Accent 4"/>
<w:LsdException Locked="false" Priority="69" Name="Medium Grid 3 Accent 4"/>
<w:LsdException Locked="false" Priority="70" Name="Dark List Accent 4"/>
<w:LsdException Locked="false" Priority="71" Name="Colorful Shading Accent 4"/>
<w:LsdException Locked="false" Priority="72" Name="Colorful List Accent 4"/>
<w:LsdException Locked="false" Priority="73" Name="Colorful Grid Accent 4"/>
<w:LsdException Locked="false" Priority="60" Name="Light Shading Accent 5"/>
<w:LsdException Locked="false" Priority="61" Name="Light List Accent 5"/>
<w:LsdException Locked="false" Priority="62" Name="Light Grid Accent 5"/>
<w:LsdException Locked="false" Priority="63" Name="Medium Shading 1 Accent 5"/>
<w:LsdException Locked="false" Priority="64" Name="Medium Shading 2 Accent 5"/>
<w:LsdException Locked="false" Priority="65" Name="Medium List 1 Accent 5"/>
<w:LsdException Locked="false" Priority="66" Name="Medium List 2 Accent 5"/>
<w:LsdException Locked="false" Priority="67" Name="Medium Grid 1 Accent 5"/>
<w:LsdException Locked="false" Priority="68" Name="Medium Grid 2 Accent 5"/>
<w:LsdException Locked="false" Priority="69" Name="Medium Grid 3 Accent 5"/>
<w:LsdException Locked="false" Priority="70" Name="Dark List Accent 5"/>
<w:LsdException Locked="false" Priority="71" Name="Colorful Shading Accent 5"/>
<w:LsdException Locked="false" Priority="72" Name="Colorful List Accent 5"/>
<w:LsdException Locked="false" Priority="73" Name="Colorful Grid Accent 5"/>
<w:LsdException Locked="false" Priority="60" Name="Light Shading Accent 6"/>
<w:LsdException Locked="false" Priority="61" Name="Light List Accent 6"/>
<w:LsdException Locked="false" Priority="62" Name="Light Grid Accent 6"/>
<w:LsdException Locked="false" Priority="63" Name="Medium Shading 1 Accent 6"/>
<w:LsdException Locked="false" Priority="64" Name="Medium Shading 2 Accent 6"/>
<w:LsdException Locked="false" Priority="65" Name="Medium List 1 Accent 6"/>
<w:LsdException Locked="false" Priority="66" Name="Medium List 2 Accent 6"/>
<w:LsdException Locked="false" Priority="67" Name="Medium Grid 1 Accent 6"/>
<w:LsdException Locked="false" Priority="68" Name="Medium Grid 2 Accent 6"/>
<w:LsdException Locked="false" Priority="69" Name="Medium Grid 3 Accent 6"/>
<w:LsdException Locked="false" Priority="70" Name="Dark List Accent 6"/>
<w:LsdException Locked="false" Priority="71" Name="Colorful Shading Accent 6"/>
<w:LsdException Locked="false" Priority="72" Name="Colorful List Accent 6"/>
<w:LsdException Locked="false" Priority="73" Name="Colorful Grid Accent 6"/>
<w:LsdException Locked="false" Priority="19" QFormat="true"
Name="Subtle Emphasis"/>
<w:LsdException Locked="false" Priority="21" QFormat="true"
Name="Intense Emphasis"/>
<w:LsdException Locked="false" Priority="31" QFormat="true"
Name="Subtle Reference"/>
<w:LsdException Locked="false" Priority="32" QFormat="true"
Name="Intense Reference"/>
<w:LsdException Locked="false" Priority="33" QFormat="true" Name="Book Title"/>
<w:LsdException Locked="false" Priority="37" SemiHidden="true"
UnhideWhenUsed="true" Name="Bibliography"/>
<w:LsdException Locked="false" Priority="39" SemiHidden="true"
UnhideWhenUsed="true" QFormat="true" Name="TOC Heading"/>
<w:LsdException Locked="false" Priority="41" Name="Plain Table 1"/>
<w:LsdException Locked="false" Priority="42" Name="Plain Table 2"/>
<w:LsdException Locked="false" Priority="43" Name="Plain Table 3"/>
<w:LsdException Locked="false" Priority="44" Name="Plain Table 4"/>
<w:LsdException Locked="false" Priority="45" Name="Plain Table 5"/>
<w:LsdException Locked="false" Priority="40" Name="Grid Table Light"/>
<w:LsdException Locked="false" Priority="46" Name="Grid Table 1 Light"/>
<w:LsdException Locked="false" Priority="47" Name="Grid Table 2"/>
<w:LsdException Locked="false" Priority="48" Name="Grid Table 3"/>
<w:LsdException Locked="false" Priority="49" Name="Grid Table 4"/>
<w:LsdException Locked="false" Priority="50" Name="Grid Table 5 Dark"/>
<w:LsdException Locked="false" Priority="51" Name="Grid Table 6 Colorful"/>
<w:LsdException Locked="false" Priority="52" Name="Grid Table 7 Colorful"/>
<w:LsdException Locked="false" Priority="46"
Name="Grid Table 1 Light Accent 1"/>
<w:LsdException Locked="false" Priority="47" Name="Grid Table 2 Accent 1"/>
<w:LsdException Locked="false" Priority="48" Name="Grid Table 3 Accent 1"/>
<w:LsdException Locked="false" Priority="49" Name="Grid Table 4 Accent 1"/>
<w:LsdException Locked="false" Priority="50" Name="Grid Table 5 Dark Accent 1"/>
<w:LsdException Locked="false" Priority="51"
Name="Grid Table 6 Colorful Accent 1"/>
<w:LsdException Locked="false" Priority="52"
Name="Grid Table 7 Colorful Accent 1"/>
<w:LsdException Locked="false" Priority="46"
Name="Grid Table 1 Light Accent 2"/>
<w:LsdException Locked="false" Priority="47" Name="Grid Table 2 Accent 2"/>
<w:LsdException Locked="false" Priority="48" Name="Grid Table 3 Accent 2"/>
<w:LsdException Locked="false" Priority="49" Name="Grid Table 4 Accent 2"/>
<w:LsdException Locked="false" Priority="50" Name="Grid Table 5 Dark Accent 2"/>
<w:LsdException Locked="false" Priority="51"
Name="Grid Table 6 Colorful Accent 2"/>
<w:LsdException Locked="false" Priority="52"
Name="Grid Table 7 Colorful Accent 2"/>
<w:LsdException Locked="false" Priority="46"
Name="Grid Table 1 Light Accent 3"/>
<w:LsdException Locked="false" Priority="47" Name="Grid Table 2 Accent 3"/>
<w:LsdException Locked="false" Priority="48" Name="Grid Table 3 Accent 3"/>
<w:LsdException Locked="false" Priority="49" Name="Grid Table 4 Accent 3"/>
<w:LsdException Locked="false" Priority="50" Name="Grid Table 5 Dark Accent 3"/>
<w:LsdException Locked="false" Priority="51"
Name="Grid Table 6 Colorful Accent 3"/>
<w:LsdException Locked="false" Priority="52"
Name="Grid Table 7 Colorful Accent 3"/>
<w:LsdException Locked="false" Priority="46"
Name="Grid Table 1 Light Accent 4"/>
<w:LsdException Locked="false" Priority="47" Name="Grid Table 2 Accent 4"/>
<w:LsdException Locked="false" Priority="48" Name="Grid Table 3 Accent 4"/>
<w:LsdException Locked="false" Priority="49" Name="Grid Table 4 Accent 4"/>
<w:LsdException Locked="false" Priority="50" Name="Grid Table 5 Dark Accent 4"/>
<w:LsdException Locked="false" Priority="51"
Name="Grid Table 6 Colorful Accent 4"/>
<w:LsdException Locked="false" Priority="52"
Name="Grid Table 7 Colorful Accent 4"/>
<w:LsdException Locked="false" Priority="46"
Name="Grid Table 1 Light Accent 5"/>
<w:LsdException Locked="false" Priority="47" Name="Grid Table 2 Accent 5"/>
<w:LsdException Locked="false" Priority="48" Name="Grid Table 3 Accent 5"/>
<w:LsdException Locked="false" Priority="49" Name="Grid Table 4 Accent 5"/>
<w:LsdException Locked="false" Priority="50" Name="Grid Table 5 Dark Accent 5"/>
<w:LsdException Locked="false" Priority="51"
Name="Grid Table 6 Colorful Accent 5"/>
<w:LsdException Locked="false" Priority="52"
Name="Grid Table 7 Colorful Accent 5"/>
<w:LsdException Locked="false" Priority="46"
Name="Grid Table 1 Light Accent 6"/>
<w:LsdException Locked="false" Priority="47" Name="Grid Table 2 Accent 6"/>
<w:LsdException Locked="false" Priority="48" Name="Grid Table 3 Accent 6"/>
<w:LsdException Locked="false" Priority="49" Name="Grid Table 4 Accent 6"/>
<w:LsdException Locked="false" Priority="50" Name="Grid Table 5 Dark Accent 6"/>
<w:LsdException Locked="false" Priority="51"
Name="Grid Table 6 Colorful Accent 6"/>
<w:LsdException Locked="false" Priority="52"
Name="Grid Table 7 Colorful Accent 6"/>
<w:LsdException Locked="false" Priority="46" Name="List Table 1 Light"/>
<w:LsdException Locked="false" Priority="47" Name="List Table 2"/>
<w:LsdException Locked="false" Priority="48" Name="List Table 3"/>
<w:LsdException Locked="false" Priority="49" Name="List Table 4"/>
<w:LsdException Locked="false" Priority="50" Name="List Table 5 Dark"/>
<w:LsdException Locked="false" Priority="51" Name="List Table 6 Colorful"/>
<w:LsdException Locked="false" Priority="52" Name="List Table 7 Colorful"/>
<w:LsdException Locked="false" Priority="46"
Name="List Table 1 Light Accent 1"/>
<w:LsdException Locked="false" Priority="47" Name="List Table 2 Accent 1"/>
<w:LsdException Locked="false" Priority="48" Name="List Table 3 Accent 1"/>
<w:LsdException Locked="false" Priority="49" Name="List Table 4 Accent 1"/>
<w:LsdException Locked="false" Priority="50" Name="List Table 5 Dark Accent 1"/>
<w:LsdException Locked="false" Priority="51"
Name="List Table 6 Colorful Accent 1"/>
<w:LsdException Locked="false" Priority="52"
Name="List Table 7 Colorful Accent 1"/>
<w:LsdException Locked="false" Priority="46"
Name="List Table 1 Light Accent 2"/>
<w:LsdException Locked="false" Priority="47" Name="List Table 2 Accent 2"/>
<w:LsdException Locked="false" Priority="48" Name="List Table 3 Accent 2"/>
<w:LsdException Locked="false" Priority="49" Name="List Table 4 Accent 2"/>
<w:LsdException Locked="false" Priority="50" Name="List Table 5 Dark Accent 2"/>
<w:LsdException Locked="false" Priority="51"
Name="List Table 6 Colorful Accent 2"/>
<w:LsdException Locked="false" Priority="52"
Name="List Table 7 Colorful Accent 2"/>
<w:LsdException Locked="false" Priority="46"
Name="List Table 1 Light Accent 3"/>
<w:LsdException Locked="false" Priority="47" Name="List Table 2 Accent 3"/>
<w:LsdException Locked="false" Priority="48" Name="List Table 3 Accent 3"/>
<w:LsdException Locked="false" Priority="49" Name="List Table 4 Accent 3"/>
<w:LsdException Locked="false" Priority="50" Name="List Table 5 Dark Accent 3"/>
<w:LsdException Locked="false" Priority="51"
Name="List Table 6 Colorful Accent 3"/>
<w:LsdException Locked="false" Priority="52"
Name="List Table 7 Colorful Accent 3"/>
<w:LsdException Locked="false" Priority="46"
Name="List Table 1 Light Accent 4"/>
<w:LsdException Locked="false" Priority="47" Name="List Table 2 Accent 4"/>
<w:LsdException Locked="false" Priority="48" Name="List Table 3 Accent 4"/>
<w:LsdException Locked="false" Priority="49" Name="List Table 4 Accent 4"/>
<w:LsdException Locked="false" Priority="50" Name="List Table 5 Dark Accent 4"/>
<w:LsdException Locked="false" Priority="51"
Name="List Table 6 Colorful Accent 4"/>
<w:LsdException Locked="false" Priority="52"
Name="List Table 7 Colorful Accent 4"/>
<w:LsdException Locked="false" Priority="46"
Name="List Table 1 Light Accent 5"/>
<w:LsdException Locked="false" Priority="47" Name="List Table 2 Accent 5"/>
<w:LsdException Locked="false" Priority="48" Name="List Table 3 Accent 5"/>
<w:LsdException Locked="false" Priority="49" Name="List Table 4 Accent 5"/>
<w:LsdException Locked="false" Priority="50" Name="List Table 5 Dark Accent 5"/>
<w:LsdException Locked="false" Priority="51"
Name="List Table 6 Colorful Accent 5"/>
<w:LsdException Locked="false" Priority="52"
Name="List Table 7 Colorful Accent 5"/>
<w:LsdException Locked="false" Priority="46"
Name="List Table 1 Light Accent 6"/>
<w:LsdException Locked="false" Priority="47" Name="List Table 2 Accent 6"/>
<w:LsdException Locked="false" Priority="48" Name="List Table 3 Accent 6"/>
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<br />
<div class="MsoNormal" style="margin-bottom: 6.0pt; margin-left: 0in; margin-right: 0in; margin-top: 6.0pt; text-align: justify;">
<span style="font-size: 16px;"><b><i>*Tulisan di bawah ini sebelumnya sudah dipublish di arabui2010.id. Seiring dengan hangusnya domain tersebut, makan terhapuslah postingan seri 'Mimpi itu...'. So, I repost it to share the whole story!</i></b></span><br />
<b><i><span style="font-family: Times, Times New Roman, serif;"><span style="color: #444444; font-family: "georgia" , "times new roman" , serif; font-size: 16px;">**Klik disini untuk teman-teman yang sebelumnya mau baca <a href="http://tbahran.blogspot.com/2018/08/mimpi-itu-harus-dijemput-bagian-1.html">Bagian 1</a> </span><span style="color: #444444;">dari serial "Mimpi Itu... Harus Dijemput"</span></span></i></b><br />
<div>
<span style="font-size: 16px;"><i><br /></i></span></div>
</div>
<div class="MsoNormal" style="margin-bottom: 6.0pt; margin-left: 0in; margin-right: 0in; margin-top: 6.0pt; text-align: justify;">
London, 10 Juni 2017<o:p></o:p></div>
<div class="MsoNormal" style="margin-bottom: 6.0pt; margin-left: 0in; margin-right: 0in; margin-top: 6.0pt; text-align: justify;">
<br /></div>
<div class="MsoNormal" style="margin-bottom: 6.0pt; margin-left: 0in; margin-right: 0in; margin-top: 6.0pt; text-align: justify;">
Mimpi itu tidak akan terwujud kalau tidak
dimulai dengan menyusun langkah-langkah untuk mewujudkannya. Tapi kadang-kadang
kita tidak punya banyak waktu untuk menunggu selesai menyusun langkah-langkah
tersebut karena kita harus membuat keputusan yang segera. Begitupun dengan
cerita saya di bagian ini. Dari Bukittinggi, besoknya ke Jakarta dan lusa ke
Pare. Dari hasil IELTS hingga reporter junior? Sebulan kemudian, dari koran
nasional ke beasiswa LPDP? Apa keputusan-keputusan spontan itu membuat saya
berhasil?<o:p></o:p></div>
<div class="MsoNormal" style="margin-bottom: 6.0pt; margin-left: 0in; margin-right: 0in; margin-top: 6.0pt; text-align: justify;">
<br /></div>
<div class="MsoNormal" style="margin-bottom: 6.0pt; margin-left: 0in; margin-right: 0in; margin-top: 6.0pt; text-align: justify;">
<b>Oktober 2014<o:p></o:p></b></div>
<div class="MsoNormal" style="margin-bottom: 6.0pt; margin-left: 0in; margin-right: 0in; margin-top: 6.0pt; text-align: justify;">
Sore itu di Bukittinggi, saya sedang duduk
di jendela rumah gadang ibu saya sambil bercengkrama via Line dengan salah
seorang sahabat karib saya. Dia bercerita dia berencana akan berangkat ke
Kampung Inggris untuk kursus Bahasa Inggris. Setelah saya bertanya-tanya
tentang keputusan dia ke Pare akhirnya saya tertarik ikut juga.<o:p></o:p></div>
<div class="MsoNormal" style="margin-bottom: 6.0pt; margin-left: 0in; margin-right: 0in; margin-top: 6.0pt; text-align: justify;">
Dengan izin ibunda, saya pulang ke Jakarta
esok harinya (iya, besoknya banget) untuk mempersiapkan kebutuhan yg perlu
dibawa karena lusa saya sudah harus berangkat dan berada di kereta yang sama
dengan sahabat saya. Selama waktu singkat ini saya juga melakukan sedikit
research, bahasa sekarangnya, kepo, tentang apa-apa yang perlu saya ketahui
tentang belajar bahasa Inggris di pare. Tidak lupa saya menghubungi seorang senior
saya di Sastra Arab UI yang saya ketahui sedang belajar di sana.<o:p></o:p></div>
<div class="MsoNormal" style="margin-bottom: 6.0pt; margin-left: 0in; margin-right: 0in; margin-top: 6.0pt; text-align: justify;">
Pertualangan menjemput mimpi selanjutnya dimulai!<o:p></o:p></div>
<div class="MsoNormal" style="margin-bottom: 6.0pt; margin-left: 0in; margin-right: 0in; margin-top: 6.0pt; text-align: justify;">
Keberangkatan yang mendadak membuat saya
belum sempat mempersiapkan semua hal. Saya belum menentukan tempat tinggal dan
tempat les yang saya tuju. Tapi niat baik selalu mendapatkan jalannya. Sesampainya
di Pare, saya disambut oleh senior saya dan dikenalkan kepada teman
perempuannya dimana saya dan sahabat saya bisa beristirahat setelah semalaman
di perjalanan. Di sela-sela makan siang, senior saya dan teman perempuannya
memberi saya informasi tentang mencari tempat tinggal dan tempat les.<o:p></o:p></div>
<div class="MsoNormal" style="margin-bottom: 6.0pt; margin-left: 0in; margin-right: 0in; margin-top: 6.0pt; text-align: justify;">
Perjalanan pertama hari itu adalah
berkeliling Kampung Inggris untuk mencari tempat tinggal. Ada tiga jenis tempat
tinggal yang bisa dipilih saat itu. Camp dari tempat kursus, camp yang terpisah
dengan tempat kursus dan kamar kos. Sore itu saya memilih sebuah camp yang
terpisah dari tempat kursus dan sempat merasakan beberapa malam di camp, tapi
pada umumnya camp punya jadwal-jadwal belajar dan ibadah (shalat dan mengaji)
yang wajib diikuti oleh penghuni camp. Saya secara pribadi tidak suka dengan
keramaian dan saat itu saya perlu tempat yang lebih tenang untuk belajar dan
apa yang saya pelajari berbeda dengan orang-orang di camp tersebut jadi saya
harus belajar sendiri. Jadi saya dan sahabat saya memutuskan pindah ke kos.
Disini saya merasa lebih nyaman, bisa tenang dalam belajar dan bisa mengatur
jadwal kegiatan saya sendiri.<o:p></o:p></div>
<div class="MsoNormal" style="margin-bottom: 6.0pt; margin-left: 0in; margin-right: 0in; margin-top: 6.0pt; text-align: justify;">
Sekarang, tinggal pilih tempat kursus.
Sebelum kesini saya sudah lihat paket-paket apa yang ditawarkan oleh berbagai
macam tempat kursus dan saya sudah tahu paket apa yang sesuai kebutuhan saya.
Dengan bantuan senior saya tadi, saya diberi pencerahan tempat kursus mana saja
yang sesuai dengan kebutuhan saya. Ada banyak sekali tempat-tempat kursus di
Kampung Inggris, dan akan terus berkembang seiring banyaknya alumni yang lulus
dan membuka tempat kursus baru. Jadi, perlu dipelajari sebelum berangkat apa
yang dibutuhkan dan tempat kursus mana yang menawarkan program tersebut.<o:p></o:p></div>
<div class="MsoNormal" style="margin-bottom: 6.0pt; margin-left: 0in; margin-right: 0in; margin-top: 6.0pt; text-align: justify;">
Tujuan utama saya ke Kampung Inggris adalah
mempersiapkan IELTS. Saya memberi waktu 2 <span style="mso-spacerun: yes;"> </span>bulan untuk diri saya sendiri. Dalam kurun
waktu tersebut, saya sudah menyelesaikan program Grammar Basic Program 2,
Writing, dan dua kali IELTS Preparation. Di luar kursus, saya menambah privat
untuk <i>grammar</i> dan ikut dalam study group untuk speaking IELTS. Semuanya
dilakukan Senin hingga Jumat dari jam 8 pagi hingga 9 malam sampai hampir tidak
ada waktu untuk main. Saya lebih sering mengakhirkan tidur demi mengerjakan
latihan tambahan. Kesempatan istirahat hanya di waktu makan siang atau makan
malam atau hari Sabtu dan Minggu.<o:p></o:p></div>
<div class="MsoNormal" style="margin-bottom: 6.0pt; margin-left: 0in; margin-right: 0in; margin-top: 6.0pt; text-align: justify;">
Selain mempersiapkan bahasa Inggris, saya
juga mulai mencari tahu tentang universitas-universitas yang menawarkan program
untuk minat saya. Saya kirim email ke kampus-kampus tersebut atau mendaftarkan
diri ke milis-milis mereka. Setelah membuat list plus minus universitas
tersebut. Prioritas saya pertama jatuh pada SOAS, University of London dan
kedua Leiden University. Selama saya di Pare, saya dua kali bertemu dengan <i>international
officer</i> dari SOAS, pertama di Jakarta dan kedua di Surabaya. Saya mengejar
beliau yang sedang ada tugas ke Indonesia, demi bisa berdiskusi secara langsung
dan mengenali kampus tujuan saya. Setelah komunikasi yang panjang, saya pun semakin
mantap ingin kuliah di SOAS.<br />
<a name='more'></a><o:p></o:p></div>
<div class="MsoNormal" style="margin-bottom: 6.0pt; margin-left: 0in; margin-right: 0in; margin-top: 6.0pt; text-align: justify;">
<br /></div>
<div class="MsoNormal" style="margin-bottom: 6.0pt; margin-left: 0in; margin-right: 0in; margin-top: 6.0pt; text-align: justify;">
<b>Januari 2015<o:p></o:p></b></div>
<div class="MsoNormal" style="margin-bottom: 6.0pt; margin-left: 0in; margin-right: 0in; margin-top: 6.0pt; text-align: justify;">
Setelah 2.5 bulan, saya memutuskan untuk
ujian. Saya masih merasa belum siap, tapi saya percaya sampai kapanpun saya
tidak akan siap, kalau saya tidak paksakan siap. Ujian IELTS pertama, saya
pilih di Semarang, Jawa Tengah. Bukan tanpa alasan, setelah konsultasi dengan
guru kursus dan bertanya dengan teman-teman yang sudah ambil ujian IELTS
sebelumnya.<o:p></o:p></div>
<div class="MsoNormal" style="margin-bottom: 6.0pt; margin-left: 0in; margin-right: 0in; margin-top: 6.0pt; text-align: justify;">
Pengalaman pertama selalu paling berkesan.
Begitu pula ujian IELTS pertama saya. Saya dapat giliran speaking pertama dari
sekian banyak peserta ujian. Setelah 3 jam mengerjakan soal Listening, Reading
dan Writing, menurut saya, energi saya sudah terkuras dan membuat speaking saya
menjadi tidak maksimal, meskipun pengujinya adalah kakak bule cantik. Nervous karena
ini ujian pertama saya ditambah kelelahan, jawaban saya pun semakin
kemana-mana, <i>pointless</i>.<o:p></o:p></div>
<div class="MsoNormal" style="margin-bottom: 6.0pt; margin-left: 0in; margin-right: 0in; margin-top: 6.0pt; text-align: justify;">
Hasil IELTSnya?<o:p></o:p></div>
<div class="MsoNormal" style="margin-bottom: 6.0pt; margin-left: 0in; margin-right: 0in; margin-top: 6.0pt; text-align: justify;">
Ternyata tidak seperti dugaan saya. Tapi
lebih buruk! Nilai saya tidak sesuai dengan target, tapi jauh di bawah. Dengan
overall 6.5 dan nilai Writing saya hanya 6.0. Begitu mendapat hasil ielts ini,
hati saya hancur. Bagaimana tidak, selama di Kampung Inggris, saya sudah
meriset soal universitas-universitas yang ingin saya tuju. Target utama saya,
SOAS, University of London, mengharuskan overall IELTS score 7.0 dan minimum
6.5 untuk salah satu section. Tentu skor IELTS saya tidak mencukupi syarat
utama SOAS<o:p></o:p><br />
<br /></div>
<div class="MsoNormal" style="margin-bottom: 6.0pt; margin-left: 0in; margin-right: 0in; margin-top: 6.0pt; text-align: justify;">
<b>Februari 2015<o:p></o:p></b></div>
<div class="MsoNormal" style="margin-bottom: 6.0pt; margin-left: 0in; margin-right: 0in; margin-top: 6.0pt; text-align: justify;">
Karena mimpi saya tergerus dengan hasil
IELTS yang tidak cukup, sementara uang tabungan hasil saya mengajar paruh waktu
selama kuliah sudah habis untuk biaya hidup dan kursus di Kampung Inggris dan
malu untuk meminta uang yang nominalnya tidak sedikit kepada Ibunda, saya
memutuskan untuk bekerja sebagai reporter junior di salah satu media cetak
nasional. Mimpi saya tutup buku (sementara).<o:p></o:p><br />
<br /></div>
<div class="MsoNormal" style="margin-bottom: 6.0pt; margin-left: 0in; margin-right: 0in; margin-top: 6.0pt; text-align: justify;">
<b>Maret 2015<o:p></o:p></b></div>
<div class="MsoNormal" style="margin-bottom: 6.0pt; margin-left: 0in; margin-right: 0in; margin-top: 6.0pt; text-align: justify;">
Hanya sebulan, sebelum akhirnya saya
memutuskan untuk berhenti menjadi reporter. Ada konsekuensi dan harga yang
harus saya bayar untuk berhenti dari pekerjaan di waktu sedini ini. Terdapat
beberapa alasan pribadi, namun yang paling penting adalah karena pendaftaran
beasiswa LPDP, beasiswa paling bergengsi dari pemerintah Indonesia, akan
ditutup bulan depan. Jika saya tetap menjadi reporter junior, saya tidak akan
bisa mempersiapkan dokumen pendaftaran saya. Reporter Junior itu pekerjaan 24
jam 7 hari seminggu. Baiklah, saya berhenti. Saya memulai dokumen pendaftaran
dan kembali ke jalur yang benar. Score IELTS saya masih dalam batas syarat
beasiswa LPDP dan setelah saya baca tulisan orang-orang yang sudah lolos
beasiswa ini mereka tidak harus punya surat tanda diterima di universitas
terlebih dahulu. Siapa tau saya lolos beasiswa LPDP dulu baru mendapat surat
penerimaan dari SOAS setelah ujian IELTS lagi. Siapa tau? Harapan baru!<o:p></o:p></div>
<div class="MsoNormal" style="margin-bottom: 6.0pt; margin-left: 0in; margin-right: 0in; margin-top: 6.0pt; text-align: justify;">
<b><br /></b>
<b>April 2015<o:p></o:p></b></div>
<div class="MsoNormal" style="margin-bottom: 6.0pt; margin-left: 0in; margin-right: 0in; margin-top: 6.0pt; text-align: justify;">
Yang pertama saya lakukan adalah membaca
syarat pendaftaran dari buku panduan yang bisa diunduh di langsung di website
LPDP. Membaca disini tidak berarti hanya sekali, tapi berkali-kali, karena saya
perlu mengecek syarat mana yang sudah saya penuhi dan yang belum saya penuhi
dan bagaimana memenuhinya dan membuat list dari syarat tersebut. Kedua, membuat
akun pendaftaran di halaman LPDP. Ketiga, mempelajari contoh esai dari
teman-teman yang sudah ada diterima beasiswa LPDP. Tidak ada guideline khusus
dalam membuat esai LPDP. Pendaftar hanya diminta menjawab pertanyaaan saja.
Tapi dengan mempelajari esai orang lain yang sudah berhasil, kita mendapat
poin-poin yang harus bisa ditonjolkan dalam esai tersebut. Keempat, menghubungi
dosen-dosen terdekat yang bisa saya mintai surat rekomendasi. Sekalian menjalin
silaturahim, mendiskusikan rencana kita dengan beliau-beliau yang sudah lebih
dulu kuliah di luar negeri bisa jadi tambahan semangat dan perspektif baru. Kelima,
tentukan negara (jika luar negeri) dan kampus dan jurusan tujuan. Kenapa
dipilih sekarang sebelum buat akun aplikasi? Karena ketika sudah buat akun,
kita tidak bisa mengganti data tersebut. Terakhir, buat akun dan lengkapi
syarat-syarat pendaftaran. Submit!<o:p></o:p></div>
<div class="MsoNormal" style="margin-bottom: 6.0pt; margin-left: 0in; margin-right: 0in; margin-top: 6.0pt; text-align: justify;">
<b><br /></b>
<b>Mei 2015<o:p></o:p></b></div>
<div class="MsoNormal" style="margin-bottom: 6.0pt; margin-left: 0in; margin-right: 0in; margin-top: 6.0pt; text-align: justify;">
Seleksi tahap pertama adalah seleksi
administrasi dan saya lolos! Harapan melanjutkan studi semakin besar. Satu
tahap lagi, yaitu seleksi substansi, yang dijadwalkan di akhir bulan. Tidak banyak
yang bisa saya ceritakan, karena menuju ke hari seleksi substansi, saya hanya
mempersiapkan segala sesuatu dari internet, membaca pengalaman-pengalaman
penerima beasiswa tentang seleksi substansi yang mereka jalani, bagaimana
teknis seleksinya dan pertanyaan-pertanyaan yang dikeluarkan oleh <i>interviewe</i>r.
<o:p></o:p></div>
<div class="MsoNormal" style="margin-bottom: 6.0pt; margin-left: 0in; margin-right: 0in; margin-top: 6.0pt; text-align: justify;">
Hari seleksi tiba. Semua berjalan lancar, setidaknya
menurut perasaan saya, kecuali wawancara. Seorang interviewer adalah professor
di bidang yang sama menginterview saya dalam bahasa Arab tentang Arab Springs,
sementara interviewer yang lain bertanya dalam bahasa Inggris. Satu hal yang
saya tidak antisipasi. Setelah satu tahun lulus dari Sastra Arab UI, dan dua
tahun tidak mengulang pelajaran Kemampuan Bahasa Arab, jadi saya tidak mampu
menjawab dalam bahasa Arab, dan saya menjawab dalam bahasa Inggris. Seakan
berusaha terus menekan saya, beliau terus bertanya dalam bahasa Arab. Saya
mengerti apa yang beliau tanyakan. Hanya saja saya tidak bisa menjawab dan
menjelaskannya dalam bahasa Arab. Dan interview saya berhenti sampai disitu. <o:p></o:p></div>
<div class="MsoNormal" style="margin-bottom: 6.0pt; margin-left: 0in; margin-right: 0in; margin-top: 6.0pt; text-align: justify;">
Sekeluarnya dari tempat seleksi saya
bergegas menuju parkiran, saya duduk di bangku kemudi dan memanaskan mobil. Dan
air mata saya tumpah meluapkan emosi kegagalan saya. <o:p></o:p></div>
<div class="MsoNormal" style="margin-bottom: 6.0pt; margin-left: 0in; margin-right: 0in; margin-top: 6.0pt; text-align: justify;">
Sesampainya di rumah, Ibu saya bertanya
bagaimana interview tadi, saya senyum menggeleng pelan dan berlari mengurung
diri di kamar.<o:p></o:p></div>
<div class="MsoNormal" style="margin-bottom: 6.0pt; margin-left: 0in; margin-right: 0in; margin-top: 6.0pt; text-align: justify;">
<b style="mso-bidi-font-weight: normal;"><br /></b>
<b style="mso-bidi-font-weight: normal;">Juni
2015<o:p></o:p></b></div>
<div class="MsoNormal" style="margin-bottom: 6.0pt; margin-left: 0in; margin-right: 0in; margin-top: 6.0pt; text-align: justify;">
<span style="mso-bidi-font-weight: bold;">Akhir
ceritanya bisa ditebak? Saya tidak lulus seleksi substansi. Saya tidak lolos
beasiswa LPDP.<o:p></o:p></span></div>
<div class="MsoNormal" style="margin-bottom: 6.0pt; margin-left: 0in; margin-right: 0in; margin-top: 6.0pt; text-align: justify;">
<br /></div>
<div class="MsoNormal" style="margin-bottom: 6.0pt; margin-left: 0in; margin-right: 0in; margin-top: 6.0pt; text-align: justify;">
<i><span style="mso-bidi-font-weight: bold;">Tiga
kegagalan besar berturut-turut mengikuti keputusa-keputusan saya dalam kurun
waktu 6 bulan, dari IELTS yang di bawah target, memulai karir yang saya tidak
mampu selesaikan, dan tidak lolos beasiswa LPDP, membuat saya berpikir bahwa
saya membuat keputusan-keputusan hanya untuk gagal. Di awal tahun yang sama,
saya juga mencoba beasiswa Australian Awards Scholarship, dan saya gagal di
tahap administrasi. Rasanya apa yang saya kerjakan selalu berakhir pada
penolakan. Saya sudah tidak mau berangan apa-apa lagi. Apa lagi bermimpi untuk
bisa melanjutkan magister di kampus impian saya. Mustahil!<o:p></o:p></span></i></div>
<div class="MsoNormal" style="margin-bottom: 6.0pt; margin-left: 0in; margin-right: 0in; margin-top: 6.0pt; text-align: justify;">
<br /></div>
<div class="MsoNormal" style="margin-bottom: 6.0pt; margin-left: 0in; margin-right: 0in; margin-top: 6.0pt; text-align: justify;">
<i><span style="mso-bidi-font-weight: bold;">Jadi
mimpinya gak jadi dijemput?<o:p></o:p></span></i></div>
<div class="MsoNormal" style="margin-bottom: 6.0pt; margin-left: 0in; margin-right: 0in; margin-top: 6.0pt; text-align: justify;">
<i><span style="mso-bidi-font-weight: bold;">Tunggu
part 3!<o:p></o:p></span></i></div>
<div class="MsoNormal" style="margin-bottom: 6.0pt; margin-left: 0in; margin-right: 0in; margin-top: 6.0pt; text-align: justify;">
<span style="mso-bidi-font-weight: bold;"><br /></span>
<span style="mso-bidi-font-weight: bold;">……………………..<o:p></o:p></span></div>
<div class="MsoNormal" style="margin-bottom: 6.0pt; margin-left: 0in; margin-right: 0in; margin-top: 6.0pt; text-align: justify;">
<span style="mso-bidi-font-weight: bold;">Tautan
yang perlu dilihat tentang hal-hal yang ada kaitannya dengan cerita di atas<o:p></o:p></span></div>
<div class="MsoNormal" style="margin-bottom: 6.0pt; margin-left: 0in; margin-right: 0in; margin-top: 6.0pt; text-align: justify;">
<span style="mso-bidi-font-weight: bold;">Kampung
Inggris, Pare<o:p></o:p></span></div>
<div class="MsoNormal" style="margin-bottom: 6.0pt; margin-left: 0in; margin-right: 0in; margin-top: 6.0pt; text-align: justify;">
<span style="mso-bidi-font-weight: bold;">Bale
Seto Kemuning (BSK) </span><a href="http://bskpare.blogspot.co.uk/"><span style="mso-bidi-font-weight: bold;">http://bskpare.blogspot.co.uk/</span></a><span style="mso-bidi-font-weight: bold;"><o:p></o:p></span></div>
<div class="MsoNormal" style="margin-bottom: 6.0pt; margin-left: 0in; margin-right: 0in; margin-top: 6.0pt; text-align: justify;">
<span style="mso-bidi-font-weight: bold;">Elfast
</span><a href="http://elfast-pare.com/#1474950922441-e1fe7ea8-346b"><span style="mso-bidi-font-weight: bold;">http://elfast-pare.com/#1474950922441-e1fe7ea8-346b</span></a><span style="mso-bidi-font-weight: bold;"><o:p></o:p></span></div>
<div class="MsoNormal" style="margin-bottom: 6.0pt; margin-left: 0in; margin-right: 0in; margin-top: 6.0pt; text-align: justify;">
<span style="mso-bidi-font-weight: bold;">Global
English </span><a href="https://www.kampunginggris.in/global-e-pare-kediri/#Super_Camp_IELTS"><span style="mso-bidi-font-weight: bold;">https://www.kampunginggris.in/global-e-pare-kediri/#Super_Camp_IELTS</span></a><span style="mso-bidi-font-weight: bold;"><o:p></o:p></span></div>
<div class="MsoNormal" style="margin-bottom: 6.0pt; margin-left: 0in; margin-right: 0in; margin-top: 6.0pt; text-align: justify;">
<br /></div>
<div class="MsoNormal" style="margin-bottom: 6.0pt; margin-left: 0in; margin-right: 0in; margin-top: 6.0pt; text-align: justify;">
<span style="mso-bidi-font-weight: bold;">IELTS
for study </span><a href="https://www.ielts.org/what-is-ielts/ielts-for-study"><span style="mso-bidi-font-weight: bold;">https://www.ielts.org/what-is-ielts/ielts-for-study</span></a><span style="mso-bidi-font-weight: bold;"><o:p></o:p></span></div>
<div class="MsoNormal" style="margin-bottom: 6.0pt; margin-left: 0in; margin-right: 0in; margin-top: 6.0pt; text-align: justify;">
<span style="mso-bidi-font-weight: bold;">QS
World University Rankings by Subject </span><a href="https://www.topuniversities.com/subject-rankings/2017"><span style="mso-bidi-font-weight: bold;">https://www.topuniversities.com/subject-rankings/2017</span></a><span style="mso-bidi-font-weight: bold;"> <o:p></o:p></span></div>
<div class="MsoNormal" style="margin-bottom: 6.0pt; margin-left: 0in; margin-right: 0in; margin-top: 6.0pt; text-align: justify;">
<br /></div>
<div class="MsoNormal" style="margin-bottom: 6.0pt; margin-left: 0in; margin-right: 0in; margin-top: 6.0pt; text-align: justify;">
<span style="mso-bidi-font-weight: bold;">Australian
Awards Scholarship </span><a href="http://australiaawards.gov.au/Pages/howtoapply.aspx"><span style="mso-bidi-font-weight: bold;">http://australiaawards.gov.au/Pages/howtoapply.aspx</span></a><span style="mso-bidi-font-weight: bold;"><o:p></o:p></span></div>
<div class="MsoNormal" style="margin-bottom: 6.0pt; margin-left: 0in; margin-right: 0in; margin-top: 6.0pt; text-align: justify;">
<span style="mso-bidi-font-weight: bold;">Beasiswa
LPDP </span><a href="http://www.lpdp.kemenkeu.go.id/"><span style="mso-bidi-font-weight: bold;">http://www.lpdp.kemenkeu.go.id/</span></a><span style="mso-bidi-font-weight: bold;"><o:p></o:p></span></div>
<div class="MsoNormal" style="margin-bottom: 6.0pt; margin-left: 0in; margin-right: 0in; margin-top: 6.0pt; text-align: justify;">
<span style="mso-bidi-font-weight: bold;">Timeline
beasiswa LPDP 2017 </span><a href="http://www.lpdp.kemenkeu.go.id/wp-content/uploads/2017/02/Jadwal-pendaftaran-2017.pdf"><span style="mso-bidi-font-weight: bold;">http://www.lpdp.kemenkeu.go.id/wp-content/uploads/2017/02/Jadwal-pendaftaran-2017.pdf</span></a><span style="mso-bidi-font-weight: bold;"><o:p></o:p></span></div>
<div class="MsoNormal" style="margin-bottom: 6.0pt; margin-left: 0in; margin-right: 0in; margin-top: 6.0pt; text-align: justify;">
<span style="mso-bidi-font-weight: bold;">……………………..<o:p></o:p></span></div>
<div class="MsoNormal" style="margin-bottom: 6.0pt; margin-left: 0in; margin-right: 0in; margin-top: 6.0pt; text-align: justify;">
<i><span style="mso-bidi-font-weight: bold;"><br /></span></i>
<i><span style="mso-bidi-font-weight: bold;">Butuh
waktu tiga hari untuk saya menulis bagian ini. Padahal bagian pertama hanya
butuh waktu 4 jam. Ada dua alasan. Pertama, bagian ini lebih panjang karena
menceritakan beberapa momen dalam satu bagian. Kedua, ternyata pengalaman gagal
itu lebih susah diceritakan dibanding pengalaman sukses. Bagian ini bagian
serius dan sedih. Bahkan selesai saya menulisnya, saya jadi merenung.
Mudah-mudahan teman-teman yang membaca pun ikut berkontemplasi, melihat kembali
dari titik awal sebelum mulai perjuangan, apa-apa yang membuat kita sekarang
gagal. Tidak perlu terburu-buru. Selamat berkontemplasi!</span></i></div>
Unknownnoreply@blogger.com0tag:blogger.com,1999:blog-3600626824018511994.post-8931675544090557672018-08-16T19:10:00.000+02:002018-08-17T10:56:31.417+02:00Mimpi Itu... Harus Dijemput (Bagian 1: Kuliah di Luar Negeri)<!--[if gte mso 9]><xml>
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<br />
<div class="MsoNormal" style="text-align: justify; text-justify: inter-ideograph;">
<span style="font-size: 16px;"><b>*<i>tulisan di bawah ini sebelumnya sudah dipublish di arabui2010.id. Seiring dengan hangusnya domain tersebut, maka terhapuslah postingan seri 'Mimpi itu...'. So, I repost it to share the whole story!</i></b></span><br />
<span style="font-size: 16px;"><i><br /></i></span></div>
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<span lang="IN" style="font-size: 12.0pt; line-height: 107%; mso-ansi-language: IN; mso-ascii-font-family: Calibri; mso-bidi-font-family: Calibri; mso-fareast-font-family: Calibri; mso-hansi-font-family: Calibri;">(Seri ‘Mimpi Itu…’ bagian 1)<o:p></o:p></span><br />
<span lang="IN" style="font-size: 12.0pt; line-height: 107%; mso-ansi-language: IN; mso-ascii-font-family: Calibri; mso-bidi-font-family: Calibri; mso-fareast-font-family: Calibri; mso-hansi-font-family: Calibri;"><br /></span></div>
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<span lang="IN" style="font-size: 12.0pt; line-height: 107%; mso-ansi-language: IN; mso-ascii-font-family: Calibri; mso-bidi-font-family: Calibri; mso-fareast-font-family: Calibri; mso-hansi-font-family: Calibri;">London</span><span style="font-size: 12.0pt; line-height: 107%; mso-ascii-font-family: Calibri; mso-bidi-font-family: Calibri; mso-fareast-font-family: Calibri; mso-hansi-font-family: Calibri;">,</span><span lang="IN" style="font-size: 12.0pt; line-height: 107%; mso-ansi-language: IN; mso-ascii-font-family: Calibri; mso-bidi-font-family: Calibri; mso-fareast-font-family: Calibri; mso-hansi-font-family: Calibri;"> 23 April 2017<o:p></o:p></span><br />
<span lang="IN" style="font-size: 12.0pt; line-height: 107%; mso-ansi-language: IN; mso-ascii-font-family: Calibri; mso-bidi-font-family: Calibri; mso-fareast-font-family: Calibri; mso-hansi-font-family: Calibri;"><br /></span></div>
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<span lang="IN" style="font-size: 12.0pt; line-height: 107%; mso-ansi-language: IN; mso-ascii-font-family: Calibri; mso-bidi-font-family: Calibri; mso-fareast-font-family: Calibri; mso-hansi-font-family: Calibri;">“Mimpi itu
harus dijemput!” pernah saya dengar di suatu kesempatan atau buku atau
postingan </span><span style="font-size: 12.0pt; line-height: 107%; mso-ascii-font-family: Calibri; mso-bidi-font-family: Calibri; mso-fareast-font-family: Calibri; mso-hansi-font-family: Calibri;">motivator-motivator </span><span lang="IN" style="font-size: 12.0pt; line-height: 107%; mso-ansi-language: IN; mso-ascii-font-family: Calibri; mso-bidi-font-family: Calibri; mso-fareast-font-family: Calibri; mso-hansi-font-family: Calibri;">di media sosial. Menurut saya, ini adalah judul
yang tepat untuk tulisan saya berikut ini. Kenapa? Baca dulu ceritanya</span><span style="font-size: 12.0pt; line-height: 107%; mso-ascii-font-family: Calibri; mso-bidi-font-family: Calibri; mso-fareast-font-family: Calibri; mso-hansi-font-family: Calibri;">.<o:p></o:p></span><br />
<span style="font-size: 12.0pt; line-height: 107%; mso-ascii-font-family: Calibri; mso-bidi-font-family: Calibri; mso-fareast-font-family: Calibri; mso-hansi-font-family: Calibri;"><br /></span></div>
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<i><span style="font-size: 12.0pt; line-height: 107%; mso-ascii-font-family: Calibri; mso-bidi-font-family: Calibri; mso-fareast-font-family: Calibri; mso-hansi-font-family: Calibri;">(</span></i><i><span lang="IN" style="font-size: 12.0pt; line-height: 107%; mso-ansi-language: IN; mso-ascii-font-family: Calibri; mso-bidi-font-family: Calibri; mso-fareast-font-family: Calibri; mso-hansi-font-family: Calibri;">Semester 7, Akhir 2013</span></i><i><span style="font-size: 12.0pt; line-height: 107%; mso-ascii-font-family: Calibri; mso-bidi-font-family: Calibri; mso-fareast-font-family: Calibri; mso-hansi-font-family: Calibri;">)<o:p></o:p></span></i></div>
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<i><span lang="IN" style="font-size: 12.0pt; line-height: 107%; mso-ansi-language: IN; mso-ascii-font-family: Calibri; mso-bidi-font-family: Calibri; mso-fareast-font-family: Calibri; mso-hansi-font-family: Calibri;">Prof Joel S. Kahn,
seorang visiting Professor dari University of Melbourne hadir di dalam kelas
Islamologi yang sedang saya ambil untuk mendengar penjelasan tentang laporan
penelitian bang Lathif (Arab 2008) mengenai praktik Sufi di Purworejo, Jawa
Tengah.<o:p></o:p></span></i><br />
<i><span lang="IN" style="font-size: 12.0pt; line-height: 107%; mso-ansi-language: IN; mso-ascii-font-family: Calibri; mso-bidi-font-family: Calibri; mso-fareast-font-family: Calibri; mso-hansi-font-family: Calibri;"><br /></span></i></div>
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<i><span lang="IN" style="font-size: 12.0pt; line-height: 107%; mso-ansi-language: IN; mso-ascii-font-family: Calibri; mso-bidi-font-family: Calibri; mso-fareast-font-family: Calibri; mso-hansi-font-family: Calibri;">Seperti biasa, saya
duduk di barisan bangku paling belakang. Bangun untuk kelas jam 8.00 pagi di
hari Jumat adalah hal terberat (iyalah bau-bau akhir pekan, sob!), meskipun
saya suka sekali mata kuliah latar belakang seperti Islamologi ini. Laporan
penelitian lapangan bang Lathif menarik perhatian saya, karena menurut saya
menemukan hal baru yang orang lain tidak banyak tahu dan bisa membaginya dalam
bentuk tulisan akademis itu keren. Jadilah saya cukup aktif bertanya dengan
bang Lathif dalam sesi tanya jawab tentang teknis penelitian dan hasil
penemuannya di lapangan.<o:p></o:p></span></i><br />
<i><span lang="IN" style="font-size: 12.0pt; line-height: 107%; mso-ansi-language: IN; mso-ascii-font-family: Calibri; mso-bidi-font-family: Calibri; mso-fareast-font-family: Calibri; mso-hansi-font-family: Calibri;"><br /></span></i></div>
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<i><span lang="IN" style="font-size: 12.0pt; line-height: 107%; mso-ansi-language: IN; mso-ascii-font-family: Calibri; mso-bidi-font-family: Calibri; mso-fareast-font-family: Calibri; mso-hansi-font-family: Calibri;">Sorenya, bu Emma
Soekarba, dosen kami untuk mata kuliah Islamologi mencari saya dan saya
menemuinya di jurusan. Tidak ada pikiran lain selain “ah paling urusan jurusan
atau IKABA’,” di otak saya karena saya memang saat itu saya dalam kapasitas
tersebut. Disitu sudah ada Prof. Kahn sedang berbincang-bincang dengan beliau.
Jadilah, saya menyapa bu Emma dan memutuskan untuk menunggu beliau sehingga
selesai urusannya dengan Prof. Kahn. Ternyata, bu Emma malah mengajak saya
duduk bareng dengan beliau dan Prof. Kahn. Dikenalkan dengan salah satu
professor penting dari Australia waktu itu menurut saya di luar ekspektasi
saya. Sampai saya bertemu dengan Prof. Kahn saya cuma pengen jadi pramugari
yang kerjaannya terbang keliling dunia (gak ada hubungannya sama Sastra Arab,
emang)</span></i><i><span style="font-size: 12.0pt; line-height: 107%; mso-ascii-font-family: Calibri; mso-bidi-font-family: Calibri; mso-fareast-font-family: Calibri; mso-hansi-font-family: Calibri;">. </span></i><i><span lang="IN" style="font-size: 12.0pt; line-height: 107%; mso-ansi-language: IN; mso-ascii-font-family: Calibri; mso-bidi-font-family: Calibri; mso-fareast-font-family: Calibri; mso-hansi-font-family: Calibri;"><o:p></o:p></span></i><br />
<i><span style="font-size: 12.0pt; line-height: 107%; mso-ascii-font-family: Calibri; mso-bidi-font-family: Calibri; mso-fareast-font-family: Calibri; mso-hansi-font-family: Calibri;"><br /></span></i></div>
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<i><span lang="IN" style="font-size: 12.0pt; line-height: 107%; mso-ansi-language: IN; mso-ascii-font-family: Calibri; mso-bidi-font-family: Calibri; mso-fareast-font-family: Calibri; mso-fareast-language: ZH-TW; mso-hansi-font-family: Calibri;"><span style="mso-spacerun: yes;"> </span>Dari obrolan saya dengan Prof.
Kahn, mungkin bu Emma melihat sesuatu dalam diri saya (yang saya sendiri waktu
itu gak lihat) jadi beliau menyarankan saya untuk berdiskusi lebih jauh tentang
melanjutkan studi ke luar negeri dengan Prof. Kahn. Gayung pun bersambut,
beliau mengiyakan saran bu Emma dengan mengundang saya ke ruangannya di minggu
berikutnya. </span></i><i><span style="font-size: 12.0pt; line-height: 107%; mso-ascii-font-family: Calibri; mso-bidi-font-family: Calibri; mso-fareast-font-family: Calibri; mso-fareast-language: ZH-TW; mso-hansi-font-family: Calibri;">Tanpa sadar
saya pun menjadi sangat excited dan menunggu waktu yang dijanjikan tiba!</span></i><i><span lang="IN" style="font-size: 12.0pt; line-height: 107%; mso-ansi-language: IN; mso-ascii-font-family: Calibri; mso-bidi-font-family: Calibri; mso-fareast-font-family: Calibri; mso-hansi-font-family: Calibri;"><o:p></o:p></span></i><br />
<i><span style="font-size: 12.0pt; line-height: 107%; mso-ascii-font-family: Calibri; mso-bidi-font-family: Calibri; mso-fareast-font-family: Calibri; mso-fareast-language: ZH-TW; mso-hansi-font-family: Calibri;"><br /></span></i></div>
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<i><span style="font-size: 12.0pt; line-height: 107%; mso-ascii-font-family: Calibri; mso-bidi-font-family: Calibri; mso-fareast-font-family: Calibri; mso-hansi-font-family: Calibri;">Datang dengan tangan kosong menemui orang sehebat
Prof. Kahn bukan impresi yang baik. Jadilah menuju hari tersebut saya melakukan
riset mini tentang S2 di Australia: beasiswa, kampus, dan jurusan yang terkait
dengan minat saya saat itu. Ketika pertemuan tersebut, saya diberikan insight</span></i><i><span style="font-size: 12.0pt; line-height: 107%; mso-ascii-font-family: Calibri; mso-bidi-font-family: Calibri; mso-fareast-font-family: Calibri; mso-fareast-language: ZH-TW; mso-hansi-font-family: Calibri;"> tentang sistem pendidikan Australia plus
beasiswa-beasiswa yang ditawarkan, motivasi dan hal-hal yang perlu disiapkan
dan bagaimana menyiapkannya, serta nama-nama orang penting yang bisa saya
mintai pendapat dan saran yang lebih spesifik. Hasil pertemuan tersebut adalah:
saya harus bisa kuliah ke luar negeri!<o:p></o:p></span></i><br />
<i><span style="font-size: 12.0pt; line-height: 107%; mso-ascii-font-family: Calibri; mso-bidi-font-family: Calibri; mso-fareast-font-family: Calibri; mso-fareast-language: ZH-TW; mso-hansi-font-family: Calibri;"><br /></span></i></div>
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<i><span style="font-size: 12.0pt; line-height: 107%; mso-ascii-font-family: Calibri; mso-bidi-font-family: Calibri; mso-fareast-font-family: Calibri; mso-fareast-language: ZH-TW; mso-hansi-font-family: Calibri;">Sepanjang perjalanan
di tahun terakhir sarjana saya, bu Emma masih semangat mengenalkan saya dengan
orang-orang yang berpengaruh terhadap dunia pembeasiswaan (Nabila, Fairuz dan
Qolbi pasti ingat perkenalan pertama dengan Mr Ambassador of Turki untuk
Indonesia). Tapi yang harus diselesaikan terlebih dahulu apa yang ada di depan
mata, seperti…. (jangan disebut, jangan disebut, jangan disebut, please)
SKRIPSI! Hahaha serius ini adalah hal yang membuat akhir masa perkuliahan saya
di UI seperti roller-coaster, naik-turun, tangis dan (tidak banyak) tawa,
begadang dan<span style="mso-spacerun: yes;"> </span>kurang tidur dengan
berpuluh-puluh botol dan sachet kopi instan, diikuti dengan masalah internal
dan eksternal. Semua yang menulis skripsi pasti tau rasanya, jadi biarkan saya
menyudahi curhatan kenangan pahit masa-masa penulisan skripsi itu ya hahaha.<o:p></o:p></span></i><br />
<i><span style="font-size: 12.0pt; line-height: 107%; mso-ascii-font-family: Calibri; mso-bidi-font-family: Calibri; mso-fareast-font-family: Calibri; mso-fareast-language: ZH-TW; mso-hansi-font-family: Calibri;"><br /></span></i></div>
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<i><span style="font-size: 12.0pt; line-height: 107%; mso-ascii-font-family: Calibri; mso-bidi-font-family: Calibri; mso-fareast-font-family: Calibri; mso-fareast-language: ZH-TW; mso-hansi-font-family: Calibri;">Dari awal pengumpulan
proposal ke pak Letmiros, saya sudah kena mini-sidang karena proposal saya
langsung dibaca di tempat, dan dibombardir pertanyaan-pertanyaan yang saat itu
saya juga belum tahu jawabannya. Pak, namanya aja proposal, isinya paling
“wallahu a`lam”, pengen jawab gitu tapi takut dimarahin hahaha. Setelah
dihujani pertanyaan, akhirnya beliau memutuskan bahwa pembimbing saya adalah…
bu Emma! Ketebak gak sih? Kebanyakan mahasiswa yang mengumpulkan proposal
tentang latar belakang pasti ngeri kalau dapat pembimbing beliau pasalnya
cerita yang sudah-sudah adalah bagaimana sulitnya menembus ACC dari beliau
(contohnya bang Lathif tadi, lulusnya di batas maksimum sarjana). Tapi namanya
juga Indah, kalau dikasih tantangan ya ditantang balik. “Saya harus bisa menyelesaikan
skripsi dalam waktu satu semester dengan nilai A, siapapun pembimbingnya. Juni
ACC, Juli sidang, Agustus Wisuda. Oke! Sip!”<o:p></o:p></span></i><br />
<i><span style="font-size: 12.0pt; line-height: 107%; mso-ascii-font-family: Calibri; mso-bidi-font-family: Calibri; mso-fareast-font-family: Calibri; mso-fareast-language: ZH-TW; mso-hansi-font-family: Calibri;"><br /></span></i></div>
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<i><span style="font-size: 12.0pt; line-height: 107%; mso-ascii-font-family: Calibri; mso-bidi-font-family: Calibri; mso-fareast-font-family: Calibri; mso-fareast-language: ZH-TW; mso-hansi-font-family: Calibri;">Pada perjalanannya,
banyak hal yang ditanamkan oleh bu Emma untuk saya. Salah satu di antaranya
adalah kepercayaan terhadap kemampuan diri sendiri. Saya tidak pernah melakukan
penelitian lapangan sendiri sebelumnya, tapi kala itu saya harus melakukannya
sendiri, dan beliau yang percaya saya bisa mengerjakannya sendiri, dan nyatanya
memang bisa kok. Kedua, pengenalan pentingnya nilai orisinalitas terhadap kerja
akademik. Tulisan skripsi saya mengangkat topik tentang sejarah pesantren di
Sumatera Barat (bukan di Jawa) dan sedikit menyinggung peran pesantren dengan
pemberontakan melawan kolonialisme dan DI/TII. Maksudnya bukan belum ada yang
pernah bahas tentang hal tersebut, tapi bagaimana menghadirkan fakta dan
analisa baru yang berbeda dari karya-karya akademis sebelumnya. Ketiga,
kesantunan dan kepatuhan terhadap orang yang lebih tua. Beliau menekankan
pentingnya restu dan doa tidak hanya dari orang tua, tetapi juga orang-orang
yang dituakan seperti guru dan dosen. Saya ingat sepanjang penulisan tersebut,
saya kerap diingatkan untuk berdiskusi dengan dosen-dosen yang lebih senior di
bidang yang sama seperti pak Minal dan pak Juhdi. Terakhir, pentingnya
membangun koneksi dengan orang-orang hebat di luar lingkungan kita. Di atas
langit, masih ada langit. Kesadaran bahwa diri sendiri tidaklah paling hebat,
di luar sana masih banyak yang lebih hebat dan penting untuk diri sendiri untuk
membangun hubungan dan mengambil pelajaran yang orang-orang tersebut sudah
terlebih dulu alami dari kita.<o:p></o:p></span></i><br />
<i><span style="font-size: 12.0pt; line-height: 107%; mso-ascii-font-family: Calibri; mso-bidi-font-family: Calibri; mso-fareast-font-family: Calibri; mso-fareast-language: ZH-TW; mso-hansi-font-family: Calibri;"><br /></span></i></div>
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<i><span style="font-size: 12.0pt; line-height: 107%; mso-ascii-font-family: Calibri; mso-bidi-font-family: Calibri; mso-fareast-font-family: Calibri; mso-fareast-language: ZH-TW; mso-hansi-font-family: Calibri;">Singkat cerita,
skripsi saya selesai tepat waktu dengan hasil yang memuaskan dan sesuai target.
<o:p></o:p></span></i><br />
<i><span style="font-size: 12.0pt; line-height: 107%; mso-ascii-font-family: Calibri; mso-bidi-font-family: Calibri; mso-fareast-font-family: Calibri; mso-fareast-language: ZH-TW; mso-hansi-font-family: Calibri;"><br /></span></i></div>
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<span style="font-size: 12.0pt; line-height: 107%; mso-ascii-font-family: Calibri; mso-bidi-font-family: Calibri; mso-fareast-font-family: Calibri; mso-fareast-language: ZH-TW; mso-hansi-font-family: Calibri;">Terus kenapa saya bahas skripsi? Apakah
saya melupakan mimpi saya untuk melanjutkan master ke luar negeri? Atau
pemikiran saya pendek, hanya sanggup memikirkan dan merencanakan skripsi, tapi
tidak untuk memikirkan rencana jangka panjang seperti S2 dengan beasiswa?</span><br />
<a name='more'></a><span style="font-size: 12.0pt; line-height: 107%; mso-ascii-font-family: Calibri; mso-bidi-font-family: Calibri; mso-fareast-font-family: Calibri; mso-fareast-language: ZH-TW; mso-hansi-font-family: Calibri;"><br /></span></div>
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<span style="font-size: 12.0pt; line-height: 107%; mso-ascii-font-family: Calibri; mso-bidi-font-family: Calibri; mso-fareast-font-family: Calibri; mso-fareast-language: ZH-TW; mso-hansi-font-family: Calibri;">Tidak dong.<o:p></o:p></span><br />
<span style="font-size: 12.0pt; line-height: 107%; mso-ascii-font-family: Calibri; mso-bidi-font-family: Calibri; mso-fareast-font-family: Calibri; mso-fareast-language: ZH-TW; mso-hansi-font-family: Calibri;"><br /></span></div>
<div class="MsoNormal" style="text-align: justify; text-justify: inter-ideograph;">
<span style="font-size: 12.0pt; line-height: 107%; mso-ascii-font-family: Calibri; mso-bidi-font-family: Calibri; mso-fareast-font-family: Calibri; mso-fareast-language: ZH-TW; mso-hansi-font-family: Calibri;">Saya percaya mimpi besar itu dapat
diwujudkan jika kita dapat menyelesaikan tanggung jawab yang ada di depan mata
sebaik mungkin. Dari akhir semester 7 saya sudah banting setir dari cita cita
menjadi pramugari selepas sarjana jadi lanjut S2 di luar negeri. Tetapi
tanggung jawab di tangan saya saat itu adalah bagaimana caranya dapat
menyelesaikan skripsi sebagai cara untuk menjadi sarjana dengan masa kuliah 8
semester atau tepat waktu. Bukan berarti saya menomerduakan cita-cita baru
saya, tapi dengan mengerjakan satu-persatu tanggung jawab saya sebaik mungkin
adalah cara saya menyiapkan hal-hal penting untuk cita-cita baru tersebut. Saya
sadar untuk mendapatkan beasiswa dan Letter of Acceptance dari kampus luar
negeri tidak mudah, maka dari itu salah satu batu loncatan saya adalah bagaimana
menulis sesuatu yang berbeda dan bagus sebagai bukti bahwa saya punya kemampuan
untuk melanjutkan studi di universitas tersebut. Lagi pula menyelesaikan
tanggung jawab satu persatu membuat kita fo</span><span lang="EL" style="font-size: 12.0pt; line-height: 107%; mso-ansi-language: EL; mso-ascii-font-family: Calibri; mso-bidi-font-family: Calibri; mso-fareast-font-family: Calibri; mso-fareast-language: ZH-TW; mso-hansi-font-family: Calibri;">κ</span><span style="font-size: 12.0pt; line-height: 107%; mso-ascii-font-family: Calibri; mso-bidi-font-family: Calibri; mso-fareast-font-family: Calibri; mso-fareast-language: ZH-TW; mso-hansi-font-family: Calibri;">us sehingga tanggung jawab tersebut lebih
cepat terselesaikan dan punya cukup waktu untuk menjemput mimpi-mimpi yang
lain.<o:p></o:p></span><br />
<span style="font-size: 12.0pt; line-height: 107%; mso-ascii-font-family: Calibri; mso-bidi-font-family: Calibri; mso-fareast-font-family: Calibri; mso-fareast-language: ZH-TW; mso-hansi-font-family: Calibri;"><br /></span></div>
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<i><span style="font-size: 12.0pt; line-height: 107%; mso-ascii-font-family: Calibri; mso-bidi-font-family: Calibri; mso-fareast-font-family: Calibri; mso-fareast-language: ZH-TW; mso-hansi-font-family: Calibri;">…………<o:p></o:p></span></i></div>
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<i><span style="font-size: 12.0pt; line-height: 107%; mso-ascii-font-family: Calibri; mso-bidi-font-family: Calibri; mso-fareast-font-family: Calibri; mso-fareast-language: ZH-TW; mso-hansi-font-family: Calibri;">(29 Agustus 2014, Wisuda UI Semester Genap)<o:p></o:p></span></i></div>
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<i><span style="font-size: 12.0pt; line-height: 107%; mso-ascii-font-family: Calibri; mso-bidi-font-family: Calibri; mso-fareast-font-family: Calibri; mso-fareast-language: ZH-TW; mso-hansi-font-family: Calibri;">Gaudeamus Igitur sudah dinyanyikan.<o:p></o:p></span></i></div>
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<i><span style="font-size: 12.0pt; line-height: 107%; mso-ascii-font-family: Calibri; mso-bidi-font-family: Calibri; mso-fareast-font-family: Calibri; mso-fareast-language: ZH-TW; mso-hansi-font-family: Calibri;">Foto-foto dengan teman seangkatan di
rektorat dan MariPro sudah.<o:p></o:p></span></i></div>
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<i><span style="font-size: 12.0pt; line-height: 107%; mso-ascii-font-family: Calibri; mso-bidi-font-family: Calibri; mso-fareast-font-family: Calibri; mso-fareast-language: ZH-TW; mso-hansi-font-family: Calibri;">Salam selamat dan bingkisan bunga juga
hadiah dari teman-teman dan adik angkatan juga sudah.<o:p></o:p></span></i></div>
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<i><span style="font-size: 12.0pt; line-height: 107%; mso-ascii-font-family: Calibri; mso-bidi-font-family: Calibri; mso-fareast-font-family: Calibri; mso-fareast-language: ZH-TW; mso-hansi-font-family: Calibri;">Sah jadi Sarjana Humaniora.<o:p></o:p></span></i></div>
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<i><span style="font-size: 12.0pt; line-height: 107%; mso-ascii-font-family: Calibri; mso-bidi-font-family: Calibri; mso-fareast-font-family: Calibri; mso-fareast-language: ZH-TW; mso-hansi-font-family: Calibri;">Terus abis ini apa?<o:p></o:p></span></i></div>
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<br /></div>
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<span style="font-size: 12.0pt; line-height: 107%; mso-ascii-font-family: Calibri; mso-bidi-font-family: Calibri; mso-fareast-font-family: Calibri; mso-fareast-language: ZH-TW; mso-hansi-font-family: Calibri;">Tunggu Mimpi itu… Harus dijemput (bagian 2)
ya!<o:p></o:p></span></div>
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<br /></div>
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<b><span style="font-size: 12.0pt; mso-ascii-font-family: Calibri; mso-bidi-font-family: Calibri; mso-fareast-font-family: Calibri; mso-fareast-language: ZH-TW; mso-hansi-font-family: Calibri;">Indah Khairunnisah Marwan<o:p></o:p></span></b></div>
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<span style="font-size: 12.0pt; mso-ascii-font-family: Calibri; mso-bidi-font-family: Calibri; mso-fareast-font-family: Calibri; mso-fareast-language: ZH-TW; mso-hansi-font-family: Calibri;">Arab UI 2010<o:p></o:p></span></div>
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<span style="font-size: 12.0pt; mso-ascii-font-family: Calibri; mso-bidi-font-family: Calibri; mso-fareast-font-family: Calibri; mso-fareast-language: ZH-TW; mso-hansi-font-family: Calibri;">Penerima Beasiswa LPDP Kementrian Keuangan PK-71 Cikal Nagari<o:p></o:p></span></div>
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<span style="font-size: 12.0pt; mso-ascii-font-family: Calibri; mso-bidi-font-family: Calibri; mso-fareast-font-family: Calibri; mso-fareast-language: ZH-TW; mso-hansi-font-family: Calibri;">Mahasiswi Near & Middle Eastern Studies di SOAS, University of
London<o:p></o:p></span></div>
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<a href="mailto:indahmarwan@gmail.com"><span style="font-size: 12.0pt; line-height: 107%; mso-ascii-font-family: Calibri; mso-bidi-font-family: Calibri; mso-fareast-font-family: Calibri; mso-fareast-language: ZH-TW; mso-hansi-font-family: Calibri;">indahmarwan@gmail.com</span></a><span style="font-size: 12.0pt; line-height: 107%; mso-ascii-font-family: Calibri; mso-bidi-font-family: Calibri; mso-fareast-font-family: Calibri; mso-fareast-language: ZH-TW; mso-hansi-font-family: Calibri;"><o:p></o:p></span></div>
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<br /></div>
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<i><span style="font-size: 12.0pt; line-height: 107%; mso-ascii-font-family: Calibri; mso-bidi-font-family: Calibri; mso-fareast-font-family: Calibri; mso-fareast-language: ZH-TW; mso-hansi-font-family: Calibri;">Tulisan ini dibuat sebagai tulisan perdana
Indah di website arabui2010.id (yang diniatkan agak serius. Nanti akan ada
tulisan-tulisan nyeleneh yang bisa menyaingi tulisannya Sugi) untuk
menyemangati dan menginspirasi teman-teman yang sedang berusaha mewujudkan
mimpi-mimpinya.<o:p></o:p></span></i></div>
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<i><span style="font-size: 12.0pt; line-height: 107%; mso-ascii-font-family: Calibri; mso-bidi-font-family: Calibri; mso-fareast-font-family: Calibri; mso-fareast-language: ZH-TW; mso-hansi-font-family: Calibri;">Paragraf mengenai bu Emma ditujukan sebagai
wujud terima kasih saya, tidak terkhusus hanya kepada bu Emma seorang, tapi
secara umum kepada seluruh guru saya sejak TK hingga SMA dan dosen saya di
prodi Arab UI atas ilmu dan support yang selama ini sudah diberikan. Sebuah
contoh bagaimana di sekolah, guru adalah orang tua kedua kami, peserta didik.
Sebuah pengingat bagaimana pentingnya peran beliau-beliau terhadap pembagian
ilmu dan pembentukan karakter anak didiknya.<o:p></o:p></span></i></div>
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<!--EndFragment--><br />Unknownnoreply@blogger.com0tag:blogger.com,1999:blog-3600626824018511994.post-44487466188185238602018-08-08T21:50:00.000+02:002018-09-26T12:27:10.332+02:00Analisis Konversi Nilai Lulusan Jerman ke IPK Indonesia (Standar Dikti)<div align="center" class="MsoNormal" style="font-family: Calibri; line-height: 19.200000762939453px; margin: 0cm 0cm 12pt; text-align: center;">
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<i><b>Oleh: Teuku Bahran Basyiran</b></i></div>
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Sudah menjadi fenomena umum bagi warga Indonesia yang sedang mengarungi perkuliahan di luar negeri untuk bertanya-tanya tentang “Kira-kira bagaimana ya nilai kuliah aku di Jerman ini kalau dikonversi ke IPK Indonesia?”, “Pemerintah Indonesia melalui Kementerian Riset Teknologi dan Pendidikan Tinggi (a.k.a. Dikti) berharap lebih gak ya kepada lulusan <i>made in Germany</i>, sehingga konversi nilainya bisa jadi bencana buat aku (i.e. yang banyak nilai <i>befriedigend </i>atau <i>ausreichend</i>)?”, “Dikti menerapkan standar yang tinggi atau rendah ya?” dan rasa penasaran lainnya.<o:p></o:p></div>
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Hasil pencarian saya di internet, belum ada konversi resmi yang dipublikasi oleh Dikti untuk Jerman <i>grading system</i>. Dikti hanya mengumumkan Peraturan Menteri tentang Penyetaraan Ijazah dan Konversi IPK Lulusan PT Luar Negeri tanpa ada informasi skema konversi apapun (Ristek Dikti, 2017). Namun demikian, ada audiensi kerjasama yang dilakukan oleh PPI Dunia dengan Dikti untuk memahai konversi nilai luar negeri seperti lulusan dari Belanda, USA, Perancis, Serbia, Maroko, Tunisia, Mesir, Korea Selatan, Taiwan, Malaysia, Brunei, etc (PPI Dunia, 2015). Sayangnya, mereka tidak mengupas tentang sistem penilaian Jerman di program tersebut. Karena itu, saya tertarik untuk menelisik akan hal ini dan ingin berbagi kepada teman-teman. Perlu digarisbawahi bahwa apa yang saya tulis ini bukan output yang pasti benar, karena ini hasil analisis dari informasi yang saya dapat.<br />
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Secara umum, tingkatan penilaian di Jerman berlawanan arah dengan nilai IPK. Nilai tertinggi 1.0, nilai <i>threshold </i>untuk lulus sebuah matakuliah 4.0, dan yang paling rendah 5.0. Di program Doktor S3 (i.e. PhD/<i>Promovierende</i>), ada nilai 0.0-0.7 yang bisa diajukan ke Examination Office atau <i>prüfungsamt </i>untuk mendapatkan <i>Summa Cum Laude</i>, sedangkan nilai 1.0 disini untuk <i>Magna Cum Laude</i>. Saya coba membandingkan skema penilaian dan keterangan klasifikasi nilai antara Jerman dan Indonesia:</div>
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<a href="https://1.bp.blogspot.com/-1gtmpbrVq-g/W2tJPlfFQAI/AAAAAAAABwc/kd2sFhU55IArzwx0-iLhYQOtvHqJsD65ACLcBGAs/s1600/Screen%2BShot%2B2018-08-08%2Bat%2B21.49.00.png" imageanchor="1" style="margin-left: 1em; margin-right: 1em;"><img border="0" data-original-height="320" data-original-width="895" height="227" src="https://1.bp.blogspot.com/-1gtmpbrVq-g/W2tJPlfFQAI/AAAAAAAABwc/kd2sFhU55IArzwx0-iLhYQOtvHqJsD65ACLcBGAs/s640/Screen%2BShot%2B2018-08-08%2Bat%2B21.49.00.png" width="640" /></a></div>
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Di Jerman sendiri, GPA paling aman aman adalah 2.5, sebagaimana banyak diterapkan sebagai <i>mininum grade</i> di program doktoral dan job position perusahaan ternama. Nevertheless, interval nilai yang paling krusial bagi banyak pelajar di Jerman adalah 2.7-4.0. Bagaimana kalkulasi Dikti untuk nilai “B” atau 3.00 di IPK Indonesia terhadap nilai lulusan Jerman? Apakah 2.7, 3.0, atau 4.0? Banyak yang beranggapan, 2.7 merupakan <i>threshold </i>untuk kategori nilai “baik”. Akan tetapi, ada pengalaman dari salah satu alumni S1 UGM dan S2 Jerman yang mengatakan nilai “B”/3.00 di Indonesia berbanding lurus dengan 3.0 di Jerman. Jadi ekuivalensi penilaian kedua negara menemui titik potong di kategori nilai tersebut. Berikut saya kutip tabel dari situs Magister Manajemen UGM untuk konversi nilai Jerman ke Indonesia (OIA MM UGM, 2018):<br />
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<a href="https://4.bp.blogspot.com/-2qIG3OYDljw/W2tH6PZ1FmI/AAAAAAAABwA/PAO7ab9fKAAg-v0kRPosmQFXnmf1ezJOACEwYBhgL/s1600/mmugm.jpg" imageanchor="1" style="margin-left: 1em; margin-right: 1em; text-align: center;"><img border="0" data-original-height="413" data-original-width="688" height="384" src="https://4.bp.blogspot.com/-2qIG3OYDljw/W2tH6PZ1FmI/AAAAAAAABwA/PAO7ab9fKAAg-v0kRPosmQFXnmf1ezJOACEwYBhgL/s640/mmugm.jpg" width="640" /></a></div>
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Dari table di atas bisa disimpulkan nilai Jerman 2.7, 3.0, dan 4.0 berturut-turut sama dengan nilai Indonesia “B+”, “B”, dan “C”. Ternyata ini lebih baik dari dugaan umum para calon pemimpin Indonesia yang kuliah di Jerman yang memprediksi ketiga nilai tersebut ekuivalen dengan “B”, “C”, dan “D” secara berturut-turut. Setali tiga uang, kesimpulan yang sama juga dapat ditemukan dengan melakukan simulasi konversi nilai di setiap <i>grade level </i>Jerman ke <i>US </i><i>Grade </i>(diadopsi Indonesia menjadi sistem IPK) melalui GPA calculator (Foreign Credits, 2018):<o:p></o:p></div>
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<a href="https://3.bp.blogspot.com/-qQjmg8QZK84/W2tH6GTwocI/AAAAAAAABwI/n5I_Jw31iIYmpTejJ6mZ_SizGfWLq19RgCEwYBhgL/s1600/foreigncredits.jpg" imageanchor="1" style="margin-left: 1em; margin-right: 1em;"><img border="0" data-original-height="505" data-original-width="467" height="400" src="https://3.bp.blogspot.com/-qQjmg8QZK84/W2tH6GTwocI/AAAAAAAABwI/n5I_Jw31iIYmpTejJ6mZ_SizGfWLq19RgCEwYBhgL/s400/foreigncredits.jpg" width="368" /></a></div>
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Di sisi lain, standar konversi yang agak tinggi bisa ditemukan jika grade dihitung dengan menggunakan Bavarian Formula (TUM, 2018). Dalam simulasi, teman-teman diharuskan untuk menginformasikan standar grading di Indonesia di mana <i>maximum grade </i>(4.00) dan <i>minimum passing grade </i>(2.00), baru kemudian isi dengan IPK yang ingin dikonversi. Dengan estimasi ini, nilai “B” di Indonesia proporsional dengan nilai 2.5 di Jerman. Sebenarnya, secara umum formula ini lebih sering dan lebih tepat digunakan untuk mengkonversi IPK Indonesia ke <i>GPA </i>Jerman. Dengan asumsi IPK Indonesia sama dengan US <i>grade</i>, hasil implementasi metode ini untuk setiap tingkatan nilai (kolom “tertiary”) serta korelasi linearnya dengan persentase jawaban benar dalam ujian (kolom “Percentage”) adalah sebagai berikut (Wikipedia, 2018):<br />
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<a href="https://2.bp.blogspot.com/-e37VOFPdgvM/W2tH6GOIp1I/AAAAAAAABwE/tPN4VqWK63MGzA6YVsIqcHw-22Ac1xprgCLcBGAs/s1600/wiki.png" imageanchor="1" style="margin-left: 1em; margin-right: 1em;"><img border="0" data-original-height="709" data-original-width="671" height="640" src="https://2.bp.blogspot.com/-e37VOFPdgvM/W2tH6GOIp1I/AAAAAAAABwE/tPN4VqWK63MGzA6YVsIqcHw-22Ac1xprgCLcBGAs/s640/wiki.png" width="603" /></a></div>
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Lantas, metode kalkulasi yang mana yang kredibel dan bisa dipercaya? Untuk ketentraman batin, saya pribadi berpegang teguh dengan standar konversi MM UGM dengan didasari beberapa alasan: (1) UGM merupakan salah satu dari top 10 institusi pendidikan tinggi terbaik di Indonesia; (2) Banyak lulusan UGM yang melanjutkan studi di Jerman; (3) Standar konversinya “ramah lingkungan” dengan nilai batas aman “B” di sistem Indonesia sama dengan nilai 3.0 dan 3.3 di Jerman; dan (4) Tidak jauh berbeda dengan berbagai estimasi US GPA di internet seperti Foreign Experts, WES Tools, etc.<o:p></o:p></div>
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Meskipun demikian, saya berharap ke depan Kementerian Ristek-Dikti agar mempublikasikan table konversi nilai dari GPA Jerman ke IPK Indonesia. Ini bisa sangat bermanfaat bagi teman-teman pelajar di Jerman untuk dapat berestimasi selama menjalani kuliah dan memasang target nilai tertentu. Selanjutnya, dengan IPK yang baik, mereka yang memiliki keinginan untuk berkontribusi kepada bangsa dan negara ini dapat bersaing secara kompetitif di dunia kerja bersama dengan lulusan dalam negeri. Semuanya demi bangsa dan negara kita, Indonesia!<o:p></o:p></div>
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<a href="https://www.blogger.com/blogger.g?blogID=3600626824018511994" imageanchor="1" style="clear: right; float: right; margin-bottom: 1em; margin-left: 1em;"></a><a href="https://www.blogger.com/blogger.g?blogID=3600626824018511994" imageanchor="1" style="clear: right; float: right; margin-bottom: 1em; margin-left: 1em;"></a><a href="https://www.blogger.com/blogger.g?blogID=3600626824018511994" imageanchor="1" style="clear: right; float: right; margin-bottom: 1em; margin-left: 1em;"></a><br /></div>
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<b>Referensi</b>:<o:p></o:p></div>
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Foreign Credits (Retrieved in 2018). Link: <a href="https://www.foreigncredits.com/Resources/GPA-Calculator/" style="color: #954f72;">https://www.foreigncredits.com/Resources/GPA-Calculator/</a><o:p></o:p></div>
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Menteri Riset, Teknologi, & Dikti (2017). Link: <a href="http://belmawa.ristekdikti.go.id/2017/10/16/permen-ristekdikti-nomor-59-tahun-2017-penyetaraan-ijazah-dan-konversi-ipk-lulusan-pt-luar-negeri/" style="color: #954f72;">http://belmawa.ristekdikti.go.id/2017/10/16/permen-ristekdikti-nomor-59-tahun-2017-penyetaraan-ijazah-dan-konversi-ipk-lulusan-pt-luar-negeri/</a>.</div>
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Office of International Affairs Magister Manajemen UGM (Retrieved in 2018). Link: <a href="http://oia.mm.feb.ugm.ac.id/aturan-konversi-nilai-matakuliah/" style="color: #954f72;">http://oia.mm.feb.ugm.ac.id/aturan-konversi-nilai-matakuliah/</a>.<o:p></o:p></div>
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<a href="https://www.blogger.com/blogger.g?blogID=3600626824018511994" imageanchor="1" style="clear: right; float: right; margin-bottom: 1em; margin-left: 1em;"></a><a href="https://www.blogger.com/blogger.g?blogID=3600626824018511994" imageanchor="1" style="clear: right; float: right; margin-bottom: 1em; margin-left: 1em;"></a><a href="https://www.blogger.com/blogger.g?blogID=3600626824018511994" imageanchor="1" style="clear: right; float: right; margin-bottom: 1em; margin-left: 1em;"></a><a href="https://www.blogger.com/blogger.g?blogID=3600626824018511994" imageanchor="1" style="clear: right; float: right; margin-bottom: 1em; margin-left: 1em;"></a><a href="https://www.blogger.com/blogger.g?blogID=3600626824018511994" imageanchor="1" style="clear: right; float: right; margin-bottom: 1em; margin-left: 1em;"></a><a href="https://www.blogger.com/blogger.g?blogID=3600626824018511994" imageanchor="1" style="clear: right; float: right; margin-bottom: 1em; margin-left: 1em;"></a>PPI Dunia (2015). Links: <a href="http://ppidunia.org/2015/02/19/memahami-konversi-nilai-pendidikan-tinggi-antar-negara-hasil-audiensi-ppi-dunia-dengan-dikti-13-januari-2015/" style="color: #954f72;">http://ppidunia.org/2015/02/19/memahami-konversi-nilai-pendidikan-tinggi-antar-negara-hasil-audiensi-ppi-dunia-dengan-dikti-13-januari-2015/</a>, PDF hasil audiensi: <a href="https://issuu.com/ppidunia/docs/dokumen_penjelasan_penyetaraan_nila" style="color: #954f72;">https://issuu.com/ppidunia/docs/dokumen_penjelasan_penyetaraan_nila</a>.</div>
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TUM, Technical University of Munich (Retrieved in 2018): Bavarian Formula. Links: <a href="https://www.tum.de/en/studies/application-and-acceptance/grade-conversion-formula-for-grades-earned-outside-germany/" style="color: #954f72;">https://www.tum.de/en/studies/application-and-acceptance/grade-conversion-formula-for-grades-earned-outside-germany/</a>,<a href="https://msingermany.co.in/german-grade-calculator/" style="color: #954f72;">https://msingermany.co.in/german-grade-calculator/</a>.<o:p></o:p></div>
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Wikipedia (Retrieved, 2018). <a href="https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Academic_grading_in_Germany" style="color: #954f72;">https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Academic_grading_in_Germany</a>.</div>
Teuku Bahran Basyiranhttp://www.blogger.com/profile/10525417589204464156noreply@blogger.com0tag:blogger.com,1999:blog-3600626824018511994.post-87513074826092479842018-07-06T12:55:00.000+02:002018-07-06T13:08:47.341+02:00Top Journals in Economics indexed in 2017 by Scopus & Thomson Reuters<div class="MsoNormal" style="font-family: Calibri; margin: 0cm 0cm 0.0001pt; text-align: justify;">
<i>(listed by Teuku Bahran Basyiran)</i></div>
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Here is the list of top journals in Economics, Economic History, and Education ranked in 2017. Most people prefer journals indexed by either Scopus (Scimago) or Thomson Reuters (Web of Science). Thus, I provide a Journal ranking for each index. Hope this will help researcher and academia who are planning to submit their study work, but are in such dilemma to find an appropriate journal.<o:p></o:p></div>
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Berikut adalah daftar jurnal terbaik di bidang Ilmu Ekonomi, Ilmu Ekonomi Sejarah dan Pendidikan untuk penilaian pada tahun 2017. Kebanyakan orang lebih cenderung untuk mengutip dan memasukkan artikel ke jurnal yang diindeks oleh Scopus (Scimago) atau Thomson Reuters (Web of Science). Jadi, saya memberikan peringkat Jurnal untuk setiap indeks tersebut. Semoga ini akan membantu peneliti dan akademisi yang berencana untuk submit hasil studi/penelitianya, tetapi masih bingung untuk menemukan jurnal yang tepat.<o:p></o:p></div>
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<b>SCOPUS Top 10 Economics Journals</b><o:p></o:p></div>
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1<o:p></o:p></div>
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<a href="https://www.scimagojr.com/journalsearch.php?q=29431&tip=sid&clean=0" style="color: #954f72;"><span style="color: #0070c0; text-decoration: none;">Quarterly Journal of Economics</span></a><span style="color: #0070c0;"><o:p></o:p></span></div>
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<a href="https://www.scimagojr.com/journalsearch.php?q=19482&tip=sid&clean=0" style="color: #954f72;"><span style="color: #0070c0; text-decoration: none;">Econometrica</span></a><span style="color: #0070c0;"><o:p></o:p></span></div>
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3<o:p></o:p></div>
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<a href="https://www.scimagojr.com/journalsearch.php?q=17500&tip=sid&clean=0" style="color: #954f72;"><span style="color: #0070c0; text-decoration: none;">Journal of Finance</span></a><span style="color: #0070c0;"><o:p></o:p></span></div>
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<a href="https://www.scimagojr.com/journalsearch.php?q=24404&tip=sid&clean=0" style="color: #954f72;"><span style="color: #0070c0; text-decoration: none;">Journal of Political Economy</span></a><span style="color: #0070c0;"><o:p></o:p></span></div>
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<a href="https://www.scimagojr.com/journalsearch.php?q=16161&tip=sid&clean=0" style="color: #954f72;"><span style="color: #0070c0; text-decoration: none;">Review of Financial Studies</span></a><span style="color: #0070c0;"><o:p></o:p></span></div>
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<a href="https://www.scimagojr.com/journalsearch.php?q=24379&tip=sid&clean=0" style="color: #954f72;"><span style="color: #0070c0; text-decoration: none;">Journal of Financial Economics</span></a><span style="color: #0070c0;"><o:p></o:p></span></div>
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7<o:p></o:p></div>
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<a href="https://www.scimagojr.com/journalsearch.php?q=22697&tip=sid&clean=0" style="color: #954f72;"><span style="color: #0070c0; text-decoration: none;">American Economic Review</span></a><span style="color: #0070c0;"><o:p></o:p></span></div>
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8<o:p></o:p></div>
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<a href="https://www.scimagojr.com/journalsearch.php?q=24202&tip=sid&clean=0" style="color: #954f72;"><span style="color: #0070c0; text-decoration: none;">Review of Economic Studies</span></a><span style="color: #0070c0;"><o:p></o:p></span></div>
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9<o:p></o:p></div>
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<a href="https://www.scimagojr.com/journalsearch.php?q=20246&tip=sid&clean=0" style="color: #954f72;"><span style="color: #0070c0; text-decoration: none;">Journal of Labor Economics</span></a><span style="color: #0070c0;"><o:p></o:p></span></div>
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10<o:p></o:p></div>
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<a href="https://www.scimagojr.com/journalsearch.php?q=19700200701&tip=sid&clean=0" style="color: #954f72;" title="view journal details"><span style="color: #0070c0; text-decoration: none;">Annual Review of Economics</span></a><span style="color: #0070c0;"><o:p></o:p></span></div>
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<b>Thomson Reuters Top 10 Economics Journals<o:p></o:p></b></div>
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<a href="https://www.scimagojr.com/journalsearch.php?q=29431&tip=sid&clean=0" style="color: #954f72;"><span style="color: #0070c0; text-decoration: none;">Quarterly Journal of Economics</span></a><span style="color: #0070c0;"><o:p></o:p></span></div>
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2<o:p></o:p></div>
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<a href="http://jhr.uwpress.org/" style="color: #954f72;"><span style="color: #0070c0; text-decoration: none;">Journal of Human Resources</span></a><span style="color: #0070c0;"><o:p></o:p></span></div>
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3<o:p></o:p></div>
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<a href="https://link.springer.com/journal/10887" style="color: #954f72;"><span style="color: #0070c0; text-decoration: none;">Journal of Economic Growth</span></a><span style="color: #0070c0;"><o:p></o:p></span></div>
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4<o:p></o:p></div>
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<a href="https://www.tandfonline.com/loi/recg20" style="color: #954f72;"><span style="color: #0070c0; text-decoration: none;">ECONOMIC GEOGRAPHY</span></a><span style="color: #0070c0;"><o:p></o:p></span></div>
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5<o:p></o:p></div>
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<a href="https://www.aeaweb.org/journals/jep" style="color: #954f72;"><span style="color: #0070c0; text-decoration: none;">JOURNAL OF ECONOMIC PERSPECTIVES</span></a><span style="color: #0070c0;"><o:p></o:p></span></div>
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6<o:p></o:p></div>
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<a href="https://www.scimagojr.com/journalsearch.php?q=17500&tip=sid&clean=0" style="color: #954f72;"><span style="color: #0070c0; text-decoration: none;">Journal of Finance</span></a><span style="color: #0070c0;"><o:p></o:p></span></div>
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7<o:p></o:p></div>
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<a href="https://www.scimagojr.com/journalsearch.php?q=24404&tip=sid&clean=0" style="color: #954f72;"><span style="color: #0070c0; text-decoration: none;">Journal of Political Economy</span></a><span style="color: #0070c0;"><o:p></o:p></span></div>
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8<o:p></o:p></div>
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<a href="https://www.scimagojr.com/journalsearch.php?q=24379&tip=sid&clean=0" style="color: #954f72;"><span style="color: #0070c0; text-decoration: none;">Journal of Financial Economics</span></a><span style="color: #0070c0;"><o:p></o:p></span></div>
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9<o:p></o:p></div>
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<a href="https://www.aeaweb.org/journals/app" style="color: #954f72;"><span style="color: #0070c0; text-decoration: none;">American Economic Journal-Applied Economics</span></a><span style="color: #0070c0;"><o:p></o:p></span></div>
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<a href="https://www.scimagojr.com/journalsearch.php?q=22697&tip=sid&clean=0" style="color: #954f72;"><span style="color: #0070c0; text-decoration: none;">American Economic Review</span></a><span style="color: #0070c0;"><o:p></o:p></span></div>
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Journal of Economic History<o:p></o:p></div>
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<a href="https://www.cambridge.org/core/journals/journal-of-economic-history" style="color: #954f72;">https://www.cambridge.org/core/journals/journal-of-economic-history</a><o:p></o:p></div>
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Economic History Review<o:p></o:p></div>
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<a href="https://onlinelibrary.wiley.com/journal/14680289" style="color: #954f72;">https://onlinelibrary.wiley.com/journal/14680289</a><o:p></o:p></div>
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Explorations in Economic History<o:p></o:p></div>
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<a href="https://www.journals.elsevier.com/explorations-in-economic-history" style="color: #954f72;">https://www.journals.elsevier.com/explorations-in-economic-history</a><o:p></o:p></div>
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Teuku Bahran Basyiranhttp://www.blogger.com/profile/10525417589204464156noreply@blogger.com0tag:blogger.com,1999:blog-3600626824018511994.post-4021813278444696562018-06-21T12:11:00.002+02:002018-08-22T18:58:57.485+02:00Peluang Setelah Lulus Kuliah di Jerman: Program CIM<!-- Global site tag (gtag.js) - Google Analytics -->
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<span style="text-align: justify;"><b>Oleh: Teuku Bahran Basyiran</b></span></div>
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<span lang="IN">Tulisan ini menginformasikan catatan <i></i>dari diskusi di Asferadio Rakan IMAN edisi Juni 2018 – yang kebetulan saya menjadi pembawa acara – bertemakan “Peluang Setelah Lulus Kuliah di Jerman”, dengan narasumber bang <b>Syahrul Anwar, M.Sc. </b>yang merupakan alumni Universität Münster (Master in Information Systems) dengan beasiswa DAAD-Aceh Batch 1 (tahun 2008) dan sekarang merupakan dosen UIN Ar-Raniry Banda Aceh yang sedang menjalani proyek di Max Planck Institut for Human History di Jena. Beliau sudah berpengalaman selama kurang lebih 6 tahun sejak beralmamater Jerman dalam perjalanan karir di berbagai program, bidang dan lembaga, serta juga berwirausaha. Berikut rangkuman ulasan dari narasumber, Syahrul, yang dapat bermanfaat kepada pembaca yang akan atau berencana menyandang gelar pendidikan “<b><i>Made in Germany</i></b>”.<o:p></o:p></span></div>
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<span lang="IN">Sebelum lulus dengan <i>degree </i>di Jerman, pastinya teman-teman memetakan rencana masa depan. <b>Mau kemana? </b>Kerja atau lanjut kuliah? Mau kerja apa? Atau mau bisnis apa? <i>Start-up </i><i>digital business</i>, <i>manufacturing </i>atau <i>services</i>? Pertanyaan-pertanyaan seperti ini sebaiknya muncul di semester akhir pada masa studi. Sambil menyusun tesis, ada baiknya hal-hal sepertinya juga disusun. Jangan sampai ketika sudah menginjakkan kaki di tanah air, bingung mau ke arah mana dan harus melakukan aktivitas apa. Sepertinya yang dilakukan narasumber tempo hari yang melakukan rencana masa depan sebelum pulang ke Indonesia. <o:p></o:p></span></div>
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<b><i><span lang="IN">Passion </span></i></b><span lang="IN">merupakan hal yang ambigu bagi <i>fresh graduate </i>dan <i>beginner professionals</i>, selain penting untuk menciptakan perjalanan karir yang nyaman, juga menimbulkan idealitas pandangan seseorang terhadap pekerjaannya yang berujung pada terlambatnya masuk ke dunia karir. Syahrul sendiri menyarankan teman-teman untuk mengesampingkan dulu <i>passion </i>di masa awal pulang di Indonesia dan cobalah jenis pekerjaan atau bidang yang berbeda-beda dengan memanfaatkan fasilitas dan keuntungan menjadi alumni Jerman. Paling ideal itu kita udah tau <i>passion </i>kita dimana dan kita mendapatkan pekerjaan dengan kondisi kerja dan gaji juga baik. Tapi sayangnya butuh waktu untuk menentukan <i>passion </i>dan untuk menemukan pekerjaan yang sesuai <i>passion </i>sekaligus baik secara ekonomi. Karena itu program-program dari pemerintah jerman sangat direkomendasi untuk dicoba sebagai jembatan menuju kondisi ideal itu.<o:p></o:p></span></div>
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<span lang="IN">Apa sih fasilitas dan keuntungan menjadi alumni Jerman? Salah satunya disediakan oleh <b>Centre for International Migration and Development (CIM)</b>. CIM merupakan lembaga yang <i>jointly run </i>bersama <b>Deutsche Gesellschaft für Internationale Zusammenarbeit (GIZ) </b>dan the German Federal Employment Agency di bidang Development and Labour Market Policy Expertise, yang menyediakan berbagai fasilitas ketenagakerjaan untuk mahasiswa lulusan Jerman dari negara kerjasama CIM untuk membangun perekonomian negara asalnya. Indonesia merupakan salah satu negara kerjasama. Organisasi ini memiliki berbagai macam program karir bagi lulusan Jerman (untuk <i>features </i>dan syarat-syarat umum bisa langsung terjun ke situs).</span></h2>
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<a name='more'></a><span style="font-family: "calibri"; text-align: justify;">Pertama, program </span><b style="font-family: calibri; text-align: justify;">Returning Expert</b><span style="font-family: "calibri"; text-align: justify;">. Pada awal perjalanan karir di Indonesia, Syahrul bekerja di suatu perusahaan di Jakarta selama 1 tahun, sambil mengisi waktu untuk memanfaat kesempatan “kerja digaji Jerman” melalui program dari CIM ini. Di bawah program CIM </span><i style="font-family: calibri; text-align: justify;">Returning Expert</i><span style="font-family: "calibri"; text-align: justify;">, Syahrul bekerja di Bappeda Aceh dengan kontrak 2+1 tahun, dengan top up gaji oleh CIM. Gaji diberikan sebagian kecil oleh instansi bersangkutan dan sisanya diberikan oleh CIM </span><i style="font-family: calibri; text-align: justify;">up to </i><span style="font-family: "calibri"; text-align: justify;">600 euro. Durasi kontrak yang diberikan maksimal 2 tahun dan bisa diperpanjang untuk tambahan 1 tahun jika proyeknya masih membutuhkan waktu dan disetujui oleh CIM. Tidak harus lembaga pemerintah, program ini juga dapat dimanfaatkan bagi yang bekerja di NGO ataupun perusahaan swasta. Meskipun demikian, peluang untuk aplikasi diterima oleh CIM lebih besar jika target pekerjaan atau proyeknya di lembaga pemerintah. Juga tidak harus instansi yang beroperasi di daerah tertinggal atau berkembang, pelamar yang berencana bekerja di daerah maju seperti Jakarta juga bisa mendaftar. Ada trik yang diberikan oleh Syahrul, di mana sebaiknya kita diterima secara informal oleh tempat dimana kita akan bekerja, misalnya di lembaga pemerintah (atau </span><i style="font-family: calibri; text-align: justify;">at least </i><span style="font-family: "calibri"; text-align: justify;">sudah membangun komunikasi dengan instansi tersebut), lalu barulah kita mendaftar dengan menghubungi pihak CIM dan memberitahu bahwa kita sudah memiliki lembaga yang menerima kita untuk bekerja, terus informasikan kembali ke instansi bahwa kita bakal di-</span><i style="font-family: calibri; text-align: justify;">top-up </i><span style="font-family: "calibri"; text-align: justify;">oleh CIM dan selanjutnya </span><i style="font-family: calibri; text-align: justify;">submit </i><span style="font-family: "calibri"; text-align: justify;">SK (surat keterangan diterima oleh lembaga) ke CIM. Teman-teman bisa mendaftar returning expert ini sejak dari penghujung akhir masa studi di Jerman atau dengan kata lain, sebelum </span><i style="font-family: calibri; text-align: justify;">home-for-good </i><span style="font-family: "calibri"; text-align: justify;">ke Indonesia, terutama ketika sudah berkomunikasi dengan lembaga/instansi/badan/institusi tujuan di Indonesia.</span></div>
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<span lang="IN">Kedua, program <b>Business Ideas for Development (BID) </b>yang merupakan program untuk <i>starting-up a business </i>di Indonesia. Keuntungan yang diberikan oleh CIM adalah bimbingan individu dalam merancang <i>business plan</i>, bantuan finansial <i>up to </i>4500 euro dan <i>networking</i>. Program ini juga sedang dilakukan oleh Syahrul, yang menjalani bisnis di bidang sistem dan teknologi informasi. Saya secara pribadi sangat menyarankan teman-teman untuk mengambil peluang di program ini, karena <i>entrepreneurship </i>merupakan solusi utama dari pemuda Indonesia untuk memajukan negeri kita tercinta yang akan mengalami bonus demografi (i.e. jumlah penduduk usia produktif lebih banyak daripada usia anak-anak dan lansia) pada tahun 2030.<o:p></o:p></span></div>
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<span lang="IN">Ketiga, program <b>Diaspora Organization</b>, yang ditujukan kepada orang Indonesia (<i>in our case</i>) yang bekerja atau lulusan kuliah di Jerman yang ingin berkontribusi dalam membangun Indonesia dengan membentuk sebuah organisasi non-profit (i.e. LSM/NGO). Program ini dapat berkontribusi tinggi terhadap pembangunan ekonomi Indonesia secara umum maupun untuk daerah-daerah tertentu, terutama daerah yang tertinggal atau sedang berkembang. Sejauh ini, belum ada teman-teman alumni Jerman (khususnya dari Aceh) yang berpengalaman dalam program CIM ini. Sehingga Syahrul memiliki keterbatasan sumber untuk <i>share </i>“lika-liku” proses aplikasi untuk yang satu ini. Untuk informasi jenis organisasi yang seperti apa dan syarat apa saja yang harus dipenuhi bisa langsung <i>surf </i>ke situsnya (lihat Referensi). Mungkin bisa langsung dicoba sendiri!<o:p></o:p></span></div>
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<span lang="IN">Pada saat <i>on-air </i>diskusi, muncul pertanyaan tentang bantuan dana dari Jerman untuk pengadaan alat (seperti <i>laboratorium items</i>), buku, dan fasilitas lainnya untuk kebutuhan proyek di Indonesia. Menurut Syahrul, pengajuan pengadaan fasilitas bekerja tersebut bisa dilakukan ketika kita sedang dalam salah satu dari ketiga program tersebut. Alat, buku, infrastruktur dan hal-hal lainnya yang dibutuhkan dalam menjalani proyek bisa diajukan ke CIM dan mereka akan memberikan bantuan dana. Tapi tidak untuk <i>funding </i>alat yang tidak membutuhkan dana besar seperti alat-alat tulis, kertas, dan sebagainya, karena CIM berasumsi bahwa top-up gaji yang diberikan sudah cukup untuk meng-<i>cover </i>kebutuhan yang kecil tersebut. <o:p></o:p></span></div>
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<span lang="IN">Selain program CIM, alumni Jerman juga dapat memanfaatkan peluang berkarir melalui program “<b>Make it in Germany</b>”. Berbeda dengan program CIM yang mendukung expert lulusan Jerman ke negara asal, program ini ditujukan untuk international qualified professionals (tidak hanya lulusan Jerman, tapi pastinya lulusan Jerman memiliki kesempatan yang lebih besar) untuk mendapatkan kesempatan berkarir, studi dan riset di Jerman dalam jangka waktu tertentu. Indonesia, Vietnam, India, dan China adalah target program ini. Di samping itu, bagi yang ingin bekerja dalam jangka panjang di Jerman, lulusan jerman juga dapat memanfaatkan program <b>Blue Card Visa dan Permanent Residence</b>. Untuk dapat bekerja di Jerman normalnya kita bisa menggunakan visa kerja biasa. Blue Card ini khusus untuk merekrut tenaga ahli dari luar Jerman untuk posisi-posisi pekerjaan yang kekurangan tenaga kerjanya di Jerman. Lebih mudah prosedurnya, lebih cepat, dan mudah juga untuk mendapatkan <i>permanent residence</i>. Untuk info lebih lanjut, bisa langsung cek di situs “EU Blue Card Network”!<o:p></o:p></span></div>
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<span lang="IN">Tentunya bagi alumni Jerman yang ingin berkarir di bidang akademi (e.g. lulus dari jenjang S1), juga memiliki kesempatan untuk melanjutkan studi di Jerman melalui beasiswa yang ditawarkan oleh DAAD dan juga berbagai lembaga riset di Jerman dengan fokus bidang ilmu tertentu. Alumni berijazah S2 bisa lanjut ke S3 dengan berbagai program beasiswa doctoral dan <i>research grants </i>dari DAAD maupun instansi riset Jerman lainnya. Sedangkan untuk mahasiswa S3 bisa memanfaatkan post-doctoral programs dari DAAD, universitas dahulu, Max Planck Institut atau lembaga riset Jerman lainnya. Khusus bagi lulusan Jerman dengan beasiswa DAAD, ada program <b>Re-invitation Programme for Former Scholarship Holders</b>, yang merupakan beasiswa lanjutan. Untuk penjelasan dan syarat selengkapnya bisa langsung mengunjungi situs DAAD atau <i>googling </i>nama program tersebut.<o:p></o:p></span></div>
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<span lang="IN">Dari penjelasan bang Syahrul dalam siaran Asferadio, bisa dilihat betapa banyak fasilitas dari pemerintah Jerman untuk perkembangan personal dan profesional kita meskipun sudah berstatus alumni. Sayang banget kan kalo dilewatkan begitu saja. Untuk itu cek detail program-program tersebut di situs di bawah ini ya. Salam sukses! Bangun negeri! <o:p></o:p></span></div>
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<b><span lang="IN">Referensi: <o:p></o:p></span></b></div>
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<span lang="IN">Asferadio: <a href="http://asferadio.caster.fm/">asferadio.caster.fm</a>, Juni 2018, </span><span lang="IN" style="text-indent: -37.7953px;">Rakan IMAN (Ikatan Mahasiswa Aceh di Jerman): </span><a href="http://www.mahasiswa-aceh.de/" style="text-indent: -37.7953px;">http://www.mahasiswa-aceh.de/</a><span style="text-indent: -37.7953px;"> </span></div>
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<span lang="IN">Blue Card: </span><span lang="IN" style="color: #954f72;"><a href="http://www.make-it-in-germany.com/en/for-qualified-professionals/visa/kinds-of-visa" style="color: #954f72;">www.make-it-in-germany.com/en/for-qualified-professionals/visa/kinds-of-visa</a> </span><span lang="IN">dan </span><a href="http://www.apply.eu/BlueCard/" style="color: #954f72;"><span lang="IN">www.apply.eu/BlueCard/</span></a><span lang="IN"><o:p></o:p></span></div>
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<span lang="IN">CIM: </span><a href="http://www.cimonline.de/" style="color: #954f72;"><span lang="IN">www.cimonline.de</span></a><span lang="IN"><o:p></o:p></span></div>
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<span lang="IN">DAAD Scholarship: </span><a href="http://www.daad.de/" style="color: #954f72;"><span lang="IN">www.daad.de</span></a><span lang="IN"><o:p></o:p></span></div>
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Teuku Bahran Basyiranhttp://www.blogger.com/profile/10525417589204464156noreply@blogger.com0tag:blogger.com,1999:blog-3600626824018511994.post-90677785780778388162018-05-17T14:52:00.002+02:002018-07-06T13:06:36.491+02:00Colloquium Presentation: Forests as Storable and Renewable Resources<div style="text-align: center;">
<b>Colloquium Presentation in Environmental Economics and Economic Growth: Forests as Storable and Renewable Resources</b></div>
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<b>Worked by: Teuku Bahran Basyiran</b><br />
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<b>Presented for:</b> Colloquium of Economic Growth in 2017 at University of Tuebingen, Germany<br />
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<b>A Brief Idea about this Presentation:</b><br />
<span lang="EN-US" style="font-family: "calibri"; font-size: 12.5pt;">It discusses the topics about forest, the storable and renewable resources. Forests play a very important role for human living. But the extent of the forest continuously declines as population continues to grow and human needs increase. The decline becomes worse over time </span><span style="font-family: "calibri"; font-size: 16.66666603088379px;">due to the economic dilemma in the Third World countries who are holding the largest share of world forest. </span><span style="font-family: "calibri"; font-size: 12.5pt;">So, how can the forest resources be sustainable? What should the countries and the world do?</span><br />
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<span style="font-family: "calibri"; font-size: 12.5pt;"><b>Main Reference:</b></span><br />
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<span style="font-family: "cmss10";">Tietenberg, Tom (2010). Environmental and Natural Resources Economics: 9th Ed. Chapter 12: 293-319. New Jersey: Pearson.</span></div>
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<br />Teuku Bahran Basyiranhttp://www.blogger.com/profile/10525417589204464156noreply@blogger.com0tag:blogger.com,1999:blog-3600626824018511994.post-28037552149486551142018-05-15T23:09:00.001+02:002018-07-06T13:07:57.510+02:00Advanced Microeconomics Problem Set 1: Preference & Choice (Master Level)<div class="separator" style="clear: both; text-align: center;">
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<b>Solution:</b></div>
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<!--[if !supportLists]--><b style="mso-bidi-font-weight: normal;"><span style="font-family: "times new roman"; mso-fareast-font-family: "Times New Roman";"><span style="mso-list: Ignore;">1.<span style="font: 7.0pt "Times New Roman";"> </span><span style="font-family: "times new roman"; font-size: 7pt; font-stretch: normal; font-style: normal; line-height: normal;"> </span></span></span></b><!--[endif]--><span style="font-family: "times new roman";"><b>(a)</b>. Rationality in preference and choice means that people would prefer to the thing which makes them satisfied instead of other things. It also can be said that these people are likely choosing goods and services in a rational way. </span><span lang="EN-US" style="font-family: "times new roman";">When people make a decision, they will consider many factors which can maximize their satisfaction, compare them with the other and also use several information that they have and believe it would make the best decision and choice. </span><span style="font-family: "times new roman";">There are two properties to describe it further:<o:p></o:p></span></div>
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<!--[if !supportLists]--><span style="font-family: "times new roman"; mso-fareast-font-family: "Times New Roman";"><span style="mso-list: Ignore;">1)<span style="font: 7.0pt "Times New Roman";"> </span></span></span><!--[endif]--><span style="font-family: "times new roman";">Completeness, assumes that there is one thing which would be chosen instead of other things. If there are two goods, let say <i>x</i>and <i>y</i>, people are going to choose <i>x </i>instead of <i>y </i></span><span style="font-family: "times new roman";">or vice versa.</span><span style="font-family: "times new roman";"><o:p></o:p></span></div>
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<!--[if !supportLists]--><span style="font-family: "times new roman"; mso-fareast-font-family: "Times New Roman";"><span style="mso-list: Ignore;">2)<span style="font: 7.0pt "Times New Roman";"> </span></span></span><!--[endif]--><span style="font-family: "times new roman";">Transitivity is a consistent comparison and behaviour by people toward the goods or choices. For example, a student prefers to study instead of work and he is more likely to work than going long vacation, so therefore this student definitely likes to study instead of going long vacation.</span><span style="font-family: "times new roman";"><o:p></o:p></span></div>
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<span style="font-family: "times new roman";"><b>(b)</b>. Example from everyday life that violates the property:<o:p></o:p></span></div>
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<span style="font-family: "times new roman";"> - Completeness: If someone has to choose between the two very similar things, then each thing cannot be better off the other, because these are almost indifferent things for him. For example, </span><span lang="EN-US" style="font-family: "times new roman";">croissant from bakery A and bakery B are at price, taste, quality, size and other indicators which could be regarded as indifferent, or are just slightly different. When someone is facing either choosing croissant from bakery A or bakery B, he is unable to make a decision quickly because he does not know what his real preference is, due to the “extremely slightly difference” of the choices.</span><span style="font-family: "times new roman";"><o:p></o:p></span></div>
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<span style="font-family: "times new roman";"> - Transitivity: It will be happened if the people are being to be inconsistent. For instance, someone like to eat bread with cheese instead of milk and he will use milk instead of chocolate, but he will choose chocolate instead of cheese, because he prefer to eat bread with a chocolate more than cheese.<o:p></o:p></span></div>
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<span style="font-family: "times new roman";">So that, violation defines the inconsistent and irrational behaviour of the people (or in this case, the consumer).<o:p></o:p></span></div>
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<b>Solution:</b></div>
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<b><br /></b></div>
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<b style="mso-bidi-font-weight: normal;"><span style="font-family: "times new roman"; mso-fareast-font-family: "Times New Roman";"><span style="mso-list: Ignore;">3.<span style="font-family: "times new roman"; font-size: 7pt; font-stretch: normal; font-style: normal; line-height: normal;"><span style="font-weight: normal;"> </span> </span></span></span></b><!--[endif]--><span style="font-family: "times new roman";"><b>(a)</b>. There is choice structure (B, C</span><sub><span style="font-family: "times new roman";">2</span></sub><span style="font-family: "times new roman";">(·)) and also there are two choice sets. In first nonempty set which is C<sub>2</sub>({<i>x,y,z</i>}) = {<i>x,y</i>}, it has <i>y </i>≥* <i>x</i>, <i>y </i>≥* <i>z</i>, <i>x </i>≥* <i>y </i>and <i>x </i>≥* <i>z</i>. But in second nonempty set which is C<sub>2</sub>({<i>x,y,</i>}) = {<i>x</i>}, only <i>x</i>is revealed preferred to <i>y</i>(<i>x </i>≥* <i>y</i>). Consequently, the choice structure </span><span style="font-family: "times new roman";">(B,C</span><sub><span style="font-family: "times new roman";">2</span></sub><span style="font-family: "times new roman";">) violates the Weak Axiom of Revealed Preference (WARP).</span><span style="font-family: "times new roman";"><o:p></o:p></span></div>
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<span lang="EN-US" style="font-family: "times new roman";">Example1: <o:p></o:p></span></div>
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<span lang="EN-US" style="font-family: "times new roman";">Today you went to a bakery, and all of the breads are in your budget set (because breads are quite affordable). And your budget set <i>B</i>= {Croissant, Cakes, Berliner}, then you bought a croissant. According to the choice rule, you have a preference on croissant over cakes and Berliner, which is <i>C(B)</i>= {croissant}. <o:p></o:p></span></div>
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<span lang="EN-US" style="font-family: "times new roman";">The other day, you went to the same bakery again, but you didn’t buy the croissant, instead, a cake, because you feel boring to buy the same bread as yesterday. Then it does not fit the properties of the rational preference relation, but very reasonable in daily life by the way.<o:p></o:p></span></div>
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<span lang="EN-US" style="font-family: "times new roman";">Example 2: <o:p></o:p></span></div>
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<span lang="EN-US" style="font-family: "times new roman";">You go out to a bar with your friends. The pub offers several kinds of drink, like beer, cola, red wine, champagne. You could afford beer, cola and red wine, so your budget set is <i>B </i>= {beer, cola, red wine}. Then you bought yourself a beer first, so we could say that you have a preference on beer over other drinks, <i>C(B)</i>= {beer}. After drinking all your beer, you ordered a cola. In this situation, the fact violates the previous preference relation, which seems irrational but in fact very rational.<o:p></o:p></span></div>
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<span lang="EN-US" style="font-family: "times new roman";">Therefore, it could be explained that people have different preference at different time, and preference could be influenced by the past events, environment, etc.</span><span style="font-family: "times new roman";"><o:p></o:p></span></div>
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<span style="font-family: "times new roman";"><b>(b)</b>. The revealed preference relation, ≥</span><span style="font-family: "times new roman"; font-weight: normal;">*, is defined by<o:p></o:p></span></div>
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<a href="https://4.bp.blogspot.com/-xiD51vO3qbM/WvtIj_BFM1I/AAAAAAAABlM/dvuHWeMlQ8khdvlGXOfOig6MACBvYpFjQCLcBGAs/s1600/Screen%2BShot%2B2018-05-15%2Bat%2B22.50.37.png" imageanchor="1" style="font-family: -webkit-standard; margin-left: 1em; margin-right: 1em; text-align: center;"><img border="0" data-original-height="29" data-original-width="535" height="21" src="https://4.bp.blogspot.com/-xiD51vO3qbM/WvtIj_BFM1I/AAAAAAAABlM/dvuHWeMlQ8khdvlGXOfOig6MACBvYpFjQCLcBGAs/s400/Screen%2BShot%2B2018-05-15%2Bat%2B22.50.37.png" width="400" /></a></div>
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<span style="font-family: "times new roman";">It explains that <i>x</i>is revealed at least as good as <i>y</i>, or it also can be said that <i>x</i>is revealed preferred to <i>y</i>. So <i>x</i>is ever chosen over <i>y</i>, then it can restate the WARP as: “if <i>x </i>is revealed at least as good as <i>y, </i>then <i>y</i>cannot be revealed preferred to <i>x</i>”.<o:p></o:p></span></div>
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<b>Solution:</b><br />
<b><br /></b>
<br />
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<b style="mso-bidi-font-weight: normal;"><span lang="EN-US" style="font-family: "times new roman"; mso-ansi-language: EN-US; mso-fareast-font-family: "Times New Roman";"><span style="mso-list: Ignore;">4.<span style="font: 7.0pt "Times New Roman";"> </span></span></span></b><!--[endif]--><span lang="EN-US" style="font-family: "times new roman";">It’s given <i>C({x,y}) = {x}</i>, which means <i>x</i>is revealed at least as good as <i>y</i>, and <i>x </i>is preferred to be chose over <i>y</i>. <o:p></o:p></span></div>
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<span lang="EN-US" style="font-family: "times new roman";">It’s also given that <i>C({y,z}) = {z}</i>, which means <i>y </i>is revealed at least as good as <i>z, </i>and <i>y </i>is preferred to be chose over <i>z</i>.<o:p></o:p></span></div>
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<span lang="EN-US" style="font-family: "times new roman";">According to the WARP, two properties completeness and transitivity have to be satisfied. Which means, while <i>x </i>is preferred over <i>y</i>, and <i>y </i>is preferred over <i>z</i>, then <i>x </i>has to be preferred over <i>z</i>, related to the transitivity of WARP.<o:p></o:p></span></div>
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<span lang="EN-US" style="font-family: "times new roman";">However, it is given by the quiz that <i>C({x,z}) = {z}</i>, which means <i>z</i>is revealed at least as good as <i>x</i>. Then <i>z</i>is preferred to be chose over <i>x</i>. This result violates the WARP by both the two required properties.</span></div>
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<b>Source</b>: My Solution for Problem Set #1 in Tutorial Class of Advanced Microeconomics Course at Master of Economics, University of Tuebingen, 2017.<br />
<br />Teuku Bahran Basyiranhttp://www.blogger.com/profile/10525417589204464156noreply@blogger.com0tag:blogger.com,1999:blog-3600626824018511994.post-17721906977916335942018-05-14T23:18:00.000+02:002018-09-25T11:19:50.476+02:00Beasiswa DAAD: Pengalaman Awardee di Proses Seleksi & Persiapan Studi<!-- Global site tag (gtag.js) - Google Analytics -->
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<b>Berkenalan dengan Beasiswa DAAD dan Pengalaman Awardee dalam Proses Seleksi, Persiapan Studi hingga Kuliah Dimulai</b></div>
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<b>Oleh: Teuku Bahran Basyiran</b></div>
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<b style="text-align: start; text-indent: 0px;"> (Materi ini saya sampaikan di Scholarship Talk DAAD, event organized by Sahabat Beasiswa Chapter Kalimantan Barat)</b></div>
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<!--[if !supportLists]--><b style="mso-bidi-font-weight: normal;"><i style="mso-bidi-font-style: normal;"><span lang="DE" style="mso-ansi-language: DE; mso-bidi-font-family: Calibri; mso-bidi-theme-font: minor-latin;"><span style="mso-list: Ignore;">1.<span style="font: 7.0pt "Times New Roman";"> </span></span></span></i></b><!--[endif]--><b><i><span lang="DE">Introduction<o:p></o:p></span></i></b></div>
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<span lang="DE">DAAD kepanjangan dari <i>Deutscher Akademischer Austauschdienst</i>, atau <i>in English</i>, <i>German Academic Exchange Services.</i><o:p></o:p></span></div>
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<span lang="DE">Sebuah lembaga beasiswa yang didanai oleh pemerintah Jerman, dibentuk pada tahun 1925 di Heidelberg (salah satu kota pelajar di Jerman dengan universitas Jerman tertua). Setiap tahun, DAAD <i>supports </i>lebih dari 100.000 <i>local/German students</i>dan <i>international students </i>yang tersebar di seluruh dunia.<o:p></o:p></span></div>
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<i>Source</i>: <a href="https://www.daad.de/der-daad/ueber-den-daad/en/" style="color: #954f72; text-decoration: underline;">https://www.daad.de/der-daad/ueber-den-daad/en/</a> (untuk selengkapnya)<o:p></o:p></div>
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Kantor c<span lang="DE">abang di Indonesia adalah DAAD Jakarta, yang didirikan tahun 1990 dan telah mengirim banyak pelajar Indonesia ke Jerman yang jumlah <i>awardees</i>-nya perlahan meningkat dari tahun ke tahun memiliki puluhan.<o:p></o:p></span></div>
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<span lang="DE">Jasa yang ditawarkan oleh DAAD adalah (ini hanya yang berkaitan dgn <i>talk </i>ini, i.e. untuk calon <i>awardees</i>): <o:p></o:p></span></div>
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<i>Source</i>: <a href="https://www.daad.id/en/" style="color: #954f72; text-decoration: underline;">https://www.daad.id/en/</a>(untuk selengkapnya)<o:p></o:p></div>
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DAAD Jakarta punya program beasiswa yang beragam: dari sisi strata pendidikan, bidang studi yang menjadi fokus DAAD, maupun dari sisi lingkup daerah. <o:p></o:p></div>
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Nah, beasiswa DAAD saya masuk ke dalam kelompok ruang lingkup daerah, yaitu DAAD Aceh Scholarship of Excellence, kerjasama antara Pemerintah Aceh dan DAAD (<i>funding</i>-nya dari Aceh, manajemen beasiswanya dikelola DAAD).<o:p></o:p></div>
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Program-program beasiswa (again, yang relevan untuk <i>talk</i>ini):<o:p></o:p></div>
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S1/S2:</div>
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<ul>
<li><i style="text-indent: -18pt;">University Summer Courses offered in Germany for Foreign Students and Graduates</i></li>
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S2/S3:</div>
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<ul>
<li><i style="text-indent: -18pt;">Study Scholarships for Foreign Graduates in the Field of Arts (Architecture, Music, Visual and Performing Arts)</i></li>
<li><i style="text-indent: -18pt;">Scholarship for Development-Related Postgraduate Courses (EPOS)</i></li>
<li><i style="text-indent: -18pt;">Helmut-Schmidt-Programme - Master's Scholarships for Public Policy and Good Governance (PPGG)</i></li>
<li><i style="text-indent: -18pt;">Master's Scholarships for Sustainable Water Management (NaWaM)</i></li>
<li><span style="text-indent: -18pt;"><span style="mso-list: Ignore;"><span style="font-family: "times new roman"; font-size: 7pt; font-stretch: normal; line-height: normal;"> </span></span></span><i style="text-indent: -18pt;">Aceh Scholarships of Excellence (administered by DAAD)<a name='more'></a></i></li>
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S3:</div>
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<li><i style="text-indent: -18pt;">Research Grants: Doctoral Programme in Germany</i></li>
<li><i style="text-indent: -18pt;">Research Grants: Bi-nationally Supervised Doctoral Degrees</i></li>
<li><i style="text-indent: -18pt;">Research Grants: One-Year Grants</i></li>
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S2/S3/Post-doc:</div>
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<li><i style="text-indent: -18pt;">Biodiversity & Health: Research Scholarship Programme for PhD Students, Postdocs, and Experts 2017</i></li>
<li><i style="text-indent: -18pt;">DLR-DAAD Research Fellowships in the fields of Space, Aeronautics, Energy and Transportation Research</i></li>
<li><i style="text-indent: -18pt;">“In-Country/In-Region Scholarship Progamme”: Call for Scholarship Applications 2018 at the Faculty of Medicine Universitas Indonesia (PDIB FKUI)</i></li>
<li><span style="text-indent: -18pt;"><span style="mso-list: Ignore;"><span style="font-family: "times new roman"; font-size: 7pt; font-stretch: normal; line-height: normal;"> </span></span></span><i style="text-indent: -18pt;">many more…</i></li>
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<i>Source</i>: <a href="https://www.daad.id/en/find-funding/daad-scholarships-for-indonesia/" style="color: #954f72; text-decoration: underline;">https://www.daad.id/en/find-funding/daad-scholarships-for-indonesia/</a> (untuk selengkapnya, ada beberapa beasiswa yang lagi dibuka)<o:p></o:p></div>
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<!--[if !supportLists]--><b style="mso-bidi-font-weight: normal;"><i style="mso-bidi-font-style: normal;"><span style="mso-bidi-font-family: Calibri; mso-bidi-theme-font: minor-latin;"><span style="mso-list: Ignore;">3.<span style="font: 7.0pt "Times New Roman";"> </span></span></span></i></b><!--[endif]--><b><i>Based on My Experience<o:p></o:p></i></b></div>
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Syarat-syarat umum:</div>
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<li><span style="font-family: "calibri"; text-indent: -18pt;">Lulus S1 (S2 untuk program S3, S3 untuk program </span><i style="text-indent: -18pt;">Post-doc</i><span style="font-family: "calibri"; text-indent: -18pt;">): </span><i style="text-indent: -18pt;">normally </i><span style="font-family: "calibri"; text-indent: -18pt;">IPK minimal 3.00, </span><b style="text-indent: -18pt;"><i>higher is better. </i></b></li>
<li><span style="font-family: "calibri"; text-indent: -18pt;">IELTS minimal 6.0 atau sejenisnya dan setara (eg. iBT TOEFL), untuk Kedokteran/Hukum/Bahasa minimal 6.5 atau bahkan 7.0. (Cek lagi di </span><i style="text-indent: -18pt;">Google</i><span style="font-family: "calibri"; text-indent: -18pt;">, krn bukan pengalaman saya).</span></li>
<li><i style="text-indent: -18pt;">Curriculum Vitae </i><span style="font-family: "calibri"; text-indent: -18pt;">(Kalo </span><i style="text-indent: -18pt;">apply </i><span style="font-family: "calibri"; text-indent: -18pt;">ke DAAD bisa coba </span><i style="text-indent: -18pt;">template Europass CV</i><span style="font-family: "calibri"; text-indent: -18pt;">, </span><i style="text-indent: -18pt;">googling </i><span style="font-family: "calibri"; text-indent: -18pt;">aja atau </span><i style="text-indent: -18pt;">surf </i><a href="https://europass.cedefop.europa.eu/documents/curriculum-vitae" style="color: #954f72; text-indent: -18pt;">https://europass.cedefop.europa.eu/documents/curriculum-vitae</a><span style="font-family: "calibri"; text-indent: -18pt;">).</span></li>
<li><i style="text-indent: -18pt;"><span lang="DE">Motivation Letter </span></i><span lang="DE" style="text-indent: -18pt;">(atau juga dikenal, <i>Personal Statement</i>) (Aku coba breakdown official guidelines dari DAAD dalam menulis motivation letter, check it out here: <a href="http://tbahran.blogspot.com/2018/09/menulis-letter-of-motivation-terbaik.html">http://tbahran.blogspot.com/2018/09/menulis-letter-of-motivation-terbaik.html</a>).</span></li>
<li><i style="text-indent: -18pt;"><span lang="DE">Recommendation Letter </span></i><span lang="DE" style="text-indent: -18pt;">dari dosen (ca. 2-3 <i>letters</i>, sebaiknya dari professor).</span></li>
<li><span style="text-indent: -18pt;">Abstrak Skripsi (kalo dirasa kurang bagus waktu nulis dulu, direvisi aja tapi jangan diubah </span><i style="text-indent: -18pt;">idea</i><span style="text-indent: -18pt;">-nya, krn di </span><i style="text-indent: -18pt;">interview </i><span style="text-indent: -18pt;">bakal ditanya tentang skripsi).</span></li>
<li><span lang="DE" style="text-indent: -18pt;"><span style="mso-list: Ignore;"><span style="font-family: "times new roman";"><span style="font-size: 9.333333015441895px;"> </span></span></span></span><i style="text-indent: -18pt;"><span lang="DE">Application</span></i><span lang="DE" style="font-family: "calibri"; font-size: small; text-indent: -18pt;"><i>Letter</i>(ini tergantung program beasiswa, apa aja <i>form </i>yang harus di-<i>download </i>dan diisi).</span></li>
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<span lang="DE">Tahapan yang saya lewati dalam applying beasiswa (mungkin kurang bisa jadi pengalaman bagi kawan-kawan, karena program beasiswa DAAD saya <i>exclusive</i>hanya untuk masyarakat Aceh):</span></div>
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<ol>
<li><span style="text-indent: -18pt;">Seleksi Berkas di Beasiswa Pemerintah Aceh (LPSDM Aceh).</span></li>
<li><span lang="DE" style="text-indent: -18pt;"><span style="mso-list: Ignore;"><span style="font-family: "times new roman"; font-size: 7pt; font-stretch: normal; line-height: normal;"> </span></span></span><i style="text-indent: -18pt;"><span lang="DE">Interview </span></i><span lang="DE" style="text-indent: -18pt;">Beasiswa LPSDM Aceh (Topik Pertanyaan: Kenapa Jerman, pengalaman, kontribusi ke Aceh, rencana karir di masa depan).</span></li>
<li><span style="text-indent: -18pt;">Pelatihan bahasa Inggris oleh LPSDM Aceh.</span></li>
<li><span style="text-indent: -18pt;">Seleksi Berkas oleh DAAD Jakarta.</span></li>
<li><i style="text-indent: -18pt;"><span lang="DE">Interview </span></i><span lang="DE" style="text-indent: -18pt;">oleh DAAD Jakarta dan Jerman (2 orang Jerman, 1 orang Indonesia) (Topik Pertanyaan: Skripsi S1 i.e. model analisis yang digunakan, pengalaman kerja/akademis, rencana karir di masa depan, kontribusi untuk Aceh).</span></li>
<li><span style="text-indent: -18pt;">Kursus bahasa Jerman di Goethe-Institut Jakarta.</span></li>
<li><span style="text-indent: -18pt;">Lulus ujian kursus bahasa Jerman di 3 </span><i style="text-indent: -18pt;">level </i><i style="text-indent: -18pt;">A1 </i><span style="text-indent: -18pt;">--> </span><i style="text-indent: -18pt;">A2 </i><span style="text-indent: -18pt;">--> </span><i style="text-indent: -18pt;">B1.</i></li>
<li><i style="text-indent: -18pt;">Apply </i><span style="text-indent: -18pt;">Universitas di Jerman.</span></li>
<li><span style="text-indent: -18pt;">Selanjutnya proses seleksi universitas Jerman.</span></li>
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Rincian biaya yang ditanggung DAAD bervariasi tergantung program. Karena saya dibiayai oleh pemerintah Aceh, biaya yang ditanggung paling sedikit dibandingkan dengan program lain. Saya dapat:<o:p></o:p></div>
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<span style="font-weight: normal;"><!--[if !supportLists]--><span style="mso-bidi-font-family: Calibri; mso-bidi-theme-font: minor-latin;"><span style="mso-list: Ignore;">1.<span style="font: 7.0pt "Times New Roman";"> </span></span></span><!--[endif]--><i>Living allowance </i>750 euro/bulan (beasiswa angkatan 2016). Alhamdulillah (bisa) </span><b>cukup</b>.<o:p></o:p></div>
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<!--[if !supportLists]--><span style="mso-bidi-font-family: Calibri; mso-bidi-theme-font: minor-latin;"><span style="mso-list: Ignore;">2.<span style="font: 7.0pt "Times New Roman";"> </span></span></span><!--[endif]-->Biaya asuransi.<o:p></o:p></div>
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<!--[if !supportLists]--><span style="mso-bidi-font-family: Calibri; mso-bidi-theme-font: minor-latin;"><span style="mso-list: Ignore;">3.<span style="font: 7.0pt "Times New Roman";"> </span></span></span><!--[endif]-->Tiket pergi awal dan pulang ketika selesai.<o:p></o:p></div>
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<!--[if !supportLists]--><span style="mso-bidi-font-family: Calibri; mso-bidi-theme-font: minor-latin;"><span style="mso-list: Ignore;">4.<span style="font: 7.0pt "Times New Roman";"> </span></span></span><!--[endif]--><i>Settlement allowance </i>setengah <i>living allowance</i>.<o:p></o:p></div>
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<!--[if !supportLists]--><span style="mso-bidi-font-family: Calibri; mso-bidi-theme-font: minor-latin;"><span style="mso-list: Ignore;">5.<span style="font: 7.0pt "Times New Roman";"> </span></span></span><!--[endif]--><i>Book allowance </i>per tahun.<o:p></o:p></div>
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<!--[if !supportLists]--><span style="mso-bidi-font-family: Calibri; mso-bidi-theme-font: minor-latin;"><span style="mso-list: Ignore;">6.<span style="font: 7.0pt "Times New Roman";"> </span></span></span><!--[endif]--><i>Research allowance </i>per tahun diberikan hanya pada tahun kedua.<o:p></o:p></div>
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<span lang="DE">Normalnya yang diberikan DAAD, untuk master 900 euro/bulan dan doctoral 1200 euro/bulan. </span>Dan detail rincian biaya yang di-<i>cover </i>dan <i>allowances </i>berbeda setiap program DAAD. <i>Cross</i>-<i>check </i>lagi di tulisan atau blog para <i>awardee </i>DAAD 2017 ke atas. Ini sudah sangat mencukupi. <o:p></o:p></div>
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(<i>Source</i>: DAAD <i>awardees </i>tahun 2017/18)<o:p></o:p></div>
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Kalo mau <i>living allowance </i>yang lebih banyak, ya bersaing lah di beasiswa LPDP, untuk mendapatkan 1100 euro per bulan (<i>Source</i>: awardee LPDP 2016). <b><i>The more difficult, the higher the efforts, the higher the rewards</i></b><i>.</i><o:p></o:p></div>
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<span style="font-style: normal;"><i>Do’s </i>(sebagian udah dijelaskan di </span><i>part</i> syarat umum):</div>
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<li><span style="text-indent: -14.2pt;">Perkuat Bahasa Inggris untuk tes IELTS atau iBT TOEFL (ini nomer 1, karena sering disebut sebagai "</span><b style="text-indent: -14.2pt;">tiket</b><span style="text-indent: -14.2pt;">").</span></li>
<li><span style="text-indent: -14.2pt;"><span style="mso-list: Ignore;"><span style="font-family: "times new roman"; font-size: 7pt; font-stretch: normal; line-height: normal;"> </span></span></span><span style="text-indent: -14.2pt;">Perbanyak aktivitas yang bisa “mempercantik” </span><i style="text-indent: -14.2pt;">CV</i><span style="text-indent: -14.2pt;">, seperti acara yang berkontribusi untuk sosial, riset lapangan, </span><i style="text-indent: -14.2pt;">etc</i><span style="text-indent: -14.2pt;">.</span></li>
<li><span style="text-indent: -14.2pt;">Buat </span><i style="text-indent: -14.2pt;">motivation letter </i><span style="text-indent: -14.2pt;">sebagus mungkin, tapi tetap singkat, padat dan jelas, </span><i style="text-indent: -14.2pt;">normally max. </i><span style="text-indent: -14.2pt;">1.5 halaman. Bisa baca-baca di Google, sudah sangat banyak referensi dari pengalaman teman-teman </span><i style="text-indent: -14.2pt;">awardees </i><span style="text-indent: -14.2pt;">disana.</span></li>
<li><span style="text-indent: -14.2pt;">Deskripsikan cita-cita di </span><i style="text-indent: -14.2pt;">motivation </i><i style="text-indent: -14.2pt;">letter </i><span style="text-indent: -14.2pt;">atau pada saat </span><i style="text-indent: -14.2pt;">interview </i><span style="text-indent: -14.2pt;">dengan pekerjaan yang bermanfaat bagi negara.</span></li>
<li><i style="text-indent: -14.2pt;">Personal statement </i><span style="text-indent: -14.2pt;">yang </span><i style="text-indent: -14.2pt;">strong </i><span style="text-indent: -14.2pt;">itu yang personal. </span><i style="text-indent: -14.2pt;">Personal </i><span style="text-indent: -14.2pt;">disini maksudnya bagaimana bisa menjelaskan </span><b style="text-indent: -14.2pt;">nilai plus diri sendiri</b><span style="text-indent: -14.2pt;"> yang tidak tergambarkan di </span><i style="text-indent: -14.2pt;">CV</i><span style="text-indent: -14.2pt;">. Jadi </span><i style="text-indent: -14.2pt;">personal </i><i style="text-indent: -14.2pt;">statement-</i><span style="text-indent: -14.2pt;">nya</span><i style="text-indent: -14.2pt;"> </i><span style="text-indent: -14.2pt;">bisa menggambarkan </span><i style="text-indent: -14.2pt;">personality</i><span style="text-indent: -14.2pt;">. Bisa dimulai dari </span><i style="text-indent: -14.2pt;">background </i><span style="text-indent: -14.2pt;">penting sebuah </span><i style="text-indent: -14.2pt;">accmplishment </i><span style="text-indent: -14.2pt;">yang tertulis di </span><i style="text-indent: -14.2pt;">CV</i><span style="text-indent: -14.2pt;">, tunjukkan bagaimana </span><i style="text-indent: -14.2pt;">how self-driven, self-motivated and work hard</i><span style="text-indent: -14.2pt;">-nya kalian di </span><i style="text-indent: -14.2pt;">personal statement</i><span style="text-indent: -14.2pt;">.</span></li>
<li><span style="text-indent: -14.2pt;">Untuk interview, buat </span><i style="text-indent: -14.2pt;">scheme of interview questions</i><span style="text-indent: -14.2pt;">. List apa saja yang kira-kira bakal ditanyain, ini tergantung masing-masing bidang studi juga sih.</span></li>
<li><span style="text-indent: -14.2pt;">Pahami betul aturan main, persyaratan, prosedur pendaftaran sebuah beasiswa (</span><b style="text-indent: -14.2pt;">sangat penting</b><span style="text-indent: -14.2pt;">).</span></li>
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Don’t do’s:</div>
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<li><span style="text-indent: -14.2pt;">Jangan membuang waktu yang tidak berguna ketika dalam periode transisi (i.e. sedang menunggu kepastian beasiswa), banyak aktivitas lain yang bisa dilakukan dan bermanfaat pengalamannya untuk apply beasiswa. </span><b style="text-indent: -14.2pt;">Untuk scholarship fighters: kesampingkan money oriented, mulailah experience oriented</b><span style="text-indent: -14.2pt;">.</span></li>
<li><span style="text-indent: -14.2pt;">Jangan tulis/menceritakan yang tidak sesuai fakta di </span><i style="text-indent: -14.2pt;">CV </i><span style="text-indent: -14.2pt;">dan </span><i style="text-indent: -14.2pt;">motivation letter</i><span style="text-indent: -14.2pt;">, karena bakal ditanya di </span><i style="text-indent: -14.2pt;">interview</i><span style="text-indent: -14.2pt;">.</span></li>
<li><span style="text-indent: -14.2pt;">Jangan bertanya yang sangat dasar kepada </span><b style="text-indent: -14.2pt;">awardees </b><span style="text-indent: -14.2pt;">yang sudah menerima beasiswa. Boleh bertanya, tapi </span><b style="text-indent: -14.2pt;">pastikan </b><span style="text-indent: -14.2pt;">bukan suatu hal yang sudah ada di persyaratan. </span><span lang="DE" style="text-indent: -14.2pt;">Harus banyak melakukan research sendiri, dibaca-baca dulu setelah itu baru tanya yang tidak ditemukan informasinya.</span></li>
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<!--[if !supportLists]--><span style="mso-ascii-font-family: Calibri; mso-bidi-font-family: Calibri; mso-fareast-font-family: Calibri; mso-hansi-font-family: Calibri;"><span style="mso-list: Ignore;">-<span style="font: 7.0pt "Times New Roman";"> </span></span></span><!--[endif]--><i><b>Consistency</b> </i>itu penting. <span lang="DE">Jangan patah semangat ketika gagal. Saya berusaha sekitar 2 tahun baru bisa berangkat sekolah ke Jerman. </span>Banyak <i>ups-and-downs </i>yang terjadi. Jadi sangat diperlukan konsistensi. Memang kita butuh uang untuk hidup, tapi disinilah pilihan (mau kerja atau mau sekolah). Walaupun demikian, <i>it is still possible </i>untuk memburu beasiswa sambil mencari kerja. Contoh kasus, selama 6 bulan saya sempat banting stir untuk fokus cari kerja (ketika hasil tes IELTS tidak memuaskan) dan akhirnya lulus sampai tahap akhir di BUMN, tapi di waktu yang bersamaan juga lulus beasiswa DAAD, lalu barulah memutuskan untuk kemana.<o:p></o:p></div>
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<!--[if !supportLists]--><span style="mso-ascii-font-family: Calibri; mso-bidi-font-family: Calibri; mso-fareast-font-family: Calibri; mso-hansi-font-family: Calibri;"><span style="mso-list: Ignore;">-<span style="font: 7.0pt "Times New Roman";"> </span></span></span><!--[endif]-->Rajin dan banyak membaca informasi. <i>Tips and trics </i>banyak sekali di internet.<o:p></o:p></div>
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<!--[if !supportLists]--><span lang="DE" style="mso-ansi-language: DE; mso-ascii-font-family: Calibri; mso-bidi-font-family: Calibri; mso-fareast-font-family: Calibri; mso-hansi-font-family: Calibri;"><span style="mso-list: Ignore;">-<span style="font: 7.0pt "Times New Roman";"> </span></span></span>Bergabung dalam kelompok berburu beasiswa di dunia nyata (bukan hanya di media sosial). <span lang="DE">Jadi bisa meningkatkan semangat, berjuang bersama. Teman/lingkungan sangat berpengaruh terhadap kehidupan kita.<o:p></o:p></span></div>
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<!--[if !supportLists]--><b style="mso-bidi-font-weight: normal;"><span style="mso-bidi-font-family: Calibri; mso-bidi-theme-font: minor-latin;"><span style="mso-list: Ignore;">6.<span style="font: 7.0pt "Times New Roman";"> </span></span></span></b><!--[endif]--><b>Based on Other Awardee’s Experience (LPDP Awardee PK-71)<o:p></o:p></b></div>
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<i>Do's:</i></div>
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<li><span style="text-indent: -18pt;">Kenali </span><i style="text-indent: -18pt;"><b>common traits</b>-</i><span style="text-indent: -18pt;">nya penerima beasiswa tersebut. Contohnya LPDP, </span><i style="text-indent: -18pt;">common traits</i><span style="text-indent: -18pt;">-nya adalah kemampuan menunjukkan keinginan untuk mengabdi ke negara Indonesia.</span></li>
<li><span style="text-indent: -18pt;">Dalam </span><i style="text-indent: -18pt;">interview</i><span style="text-indent: -18pt;">, jangan terlalu idealis dengan ide dan cita-cita pribadi. Coba kaitakan ide dan cita-cita tersebut dengan kontribusi bagi negeri (untuk pembangunan Indonesia). </span><span lang="DE" style="text-indent: -18pt;">Dan harus jelaskan langkah-langkah konkrit dalam implementasinya, bukan secara umum yang notabene bisa dilakukan orang biasa. Pelamar beasiswa harus menunjukkan dia orang yang spesial untuk harus disekolahkan.</span></li>
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<i><span lang="DE">Don’ts</span></i><span lang="DE">:</span></div>
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<li><span style="text-indent: -18pt;">Jangan mendaftar beasiswa tanpa persiapan matang. </span><i style="text-indent: -18pt;">Last-minute application </i><span style="text-indent: -18pt;">akan lebih banyak kurangnya dan chancenya lulusnya akan semakin kecil. Buat </span><i style="text-indent: -18pt;">timeline </i><span style="text-indent: -18pt;">yang pasti dan </span><b style="text-indent: -18pt;">disiplin terhadap diri sendiri </b><span style="text-indent: -18pt;">untuk mencicil satu persatu persyaratan.</span></li>
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Pesan:<o:p></o:p></div>
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<!--[if !supportLists]--><span style="mso-ascii-font-family: Calibri; mso-bidi-font-family: Calibri; mso-fareast-font-family: Calibri; mso-hansi-font-family: Calibri;"><span style="mso-list: Ignore;">-<span style="font: 7.0pt "Times New Roman";"> </span></span></span><!--[endif]-->Meminta <b>doa restu orang tua </b>dan keluarga. <o:p></o:p></div>
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<!--[if !supportLists]--><span style="font-style: normal;"><span style="mso-list: Ignore;">-<span style="font: 7.0pt "Times New Roman";"> </span></span></span><!--[endif]-->Meminta bimbingan dari <b><i>awardee</i> </b>terdekat.<o:p></o:p></div>
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<!--[if !supportLists]--><span style="mso-ascii-font-family: Calibri; mso-bidi-font-family: Calibri; mso-fareast-font-family: Calibri; mso-hansi-font-family: Calibri;"><span style="mso-list: Ignore;">-<span style="font: 7.0pt "Times New Roman";"> </span></span></span><!--[endif]-->Dari semenjak memulai pendaftaran: kembalikan <b>niat utama </b>ingin melanjutkan kuliah, dan menjaga niat lurusnya sampai ketika lulus seleksi dan memulai belajar, fokus. Jangan tergoda hal-hal yg dapat merusak tujuan utama kalian <i>road to abroad</i>.<o:p></o:p></div>
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Sekian pengalaman dari perjalanan saya menuju <i>study abroad</i>. Pastinya informasi yang saya berikan sifatnya subjektif, tidak <i>exactly </i>benar. Jadi teman-teman <b>wajib </b>untuk membaca dan mendapatkan cerita dari <i>awardee </i>lain.<b><o:p></o:p></b></div>
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Setiap orang memiliki pengalamannya masing-masing dengan modal, kemampuan, dan rintangan yang berbeda-beda. Semangat dan terus berjuang, <b><i>scholarship fighters</i></b>!<o:p></o:p></div>
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(<b>Untuk informasi dan cerita pengalaman yang lebih spesifik dan komprehensif, silahkan dibaca notulensi sesi tanya-jawab berikut ini.</b> Ada 34 pertanyaan dan saya kira ini sudah cukup komplit untuk menjawab pertanyaan yang ada di pikiran para calon awardee.)</blockquote>
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<b>8. Q&A Session<o:p></o:p></b></div>
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<!--[if !supportLists]--><span style="mso-bidi-font-family: Calibri; mso-bidi-theme-font: minor-latin;"><span style="mso-list: Ignore;">1.<span style="font: 7.0pt "Times New Roman";"> </span></span></span><!--[endif]-->Q: Lama studi master di Jerman rata-rata berapa tahun? Apakah tiap jurusan berbeda atau sama? Khususnya untuk bidang kesehatan berapa lama ya?<o:p></o:p></div>
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A: <span style="color: #4472c4;">Rata-rata 2 tahun. Tergantung program studinya, ada juga yang 1.5 tahun. </span><span lang="DE" style="color: #4472c4;">Bidang kesehatan generally 2 tahun. Untuk program studi di Jerman bisa lihat dan diipilih sendiri di link berikut ini:</span></div>
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<span style="color: #4472c4;"><a href="https://www.daad.de/deutschland/studienangebote/international-programmes/en/?p=l&q=&degree%5b%5d=2&fos=0&fee%5b%5d=0&sortBy=1&page=1&display=list" style="color: #954f72; text-decoration: underline;"><span lang="DE" style="color: #4472c4;">https://www.daad.de/deutschland/studienangebote/international-programmes/en/?p=l&q=&degree[]=2&fos=0&fee[]=0&sortBy=1&page=1&display=list</span></a></span><span style="color: #4472c4;"><span lang="DE"> <o:p></o:p></span></span></div>
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<!--[if !supportLists]--><span lang="DE" style="mso-ansi-language: DE; mso-bidi-font-family: Calibri; mso-bidi-theme-font: minor-latin;"><span style="mso-list: Ignore;">2.<span style="font: 7.0pt "Times New Roman";"> </span></span></span><!--[endif]--><span lang="DE">Q: Jenjang S2 di beasiswa ini sistemnya kuliah kelas atau research saja? Atau bahkan bisa kombinasi keduanya? <o:p></o:p></span></div>
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A: <span style="color: #4472c4;">Kalo di jerman, rata-rata mixed study (coursework 3 semester awal + tesis semester akhir) dan gak ada yang full coursework. Kalo yang full research selama 2 tahun ada, tapi biasanya tetep ada kelasnya juga.</span><span lang="DE" style="color: #4472c4;"><o:p></o:p></span></div>
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<!--[if !supportLists]--><span style="mso-bidi-font-family: Calibri; mso-bidi-theme-font: minor-latin;"><span style="mso-list: Ignore;">3.<span style="font: 7.0pt "Times New Roman";"> </span></span></span><!--[endif]-->Q: Kalo tidak salah baca, tadi dipaparkan tentang beasiswa biodiversity and health. Itu hanya beasiswa research saja ya?<o:p></o:p></div>
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A: <span style="color: #4472c4;">Iya salah satu program beasiswa DAAD. </span><span lang="DE" style="color: #4472c4;">Untuk detailnya bisa cek sendiri di link yang saya berikan di Introduction.</span><span style="color: #4472c4;"><o:p></o:p></span></div>
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<!--[if !supportLists]--><span lang="DE" style="mso-ansi-language: DE; mso-bidi-font-family: Calibri; mso-bidi-theme-font: minor-latin;"><span style="mso-list: Ignore;">4.<span style="font: 7.0pt "Times New Roman";"> </span></span></span><!--[endif]--><span lang="DE">Q: Seberapa besar pengaruh akreditas program studi terhadap seleksi beasiswa ini?<o:p></o:p></span></div>
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A: <span style="color: #4472c4;">Ini pertanyaan bagus. Pastinya penting, akreditasi yg bagus itu suatu advantage. Tapi proporsi pengaruh terhadap penerimaan beasiswanya mungkin kecil. Yang paling penting di DAAD adalah linearitas program studi sebelumnya dengan program studi yang diapply (eg. S1 kedokteran, apply S2 Public Health), motivation letter yg menggambarkan kamu mau berkontribusi untuk daerah/indonesia, skripsi s1 dan kira2 mau research apa di Jerman nanti (paling bagus yang ada hubungan dengan Indonesia)</span><span lang="DE" style="color: #4472c4;"><o:p></o:p></span></div>
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<!--[if !supportLists]--><span lang="DE" style="mso-ansi-language: DE; mso-bidi-font-family: Calibri; mso-bidi-theme-font: minor-latin;"><span style="mso-list: Ignore;">5.<span style="font: 7.0pt "Times New Roman";"> </span></span></span><!--[endif]--><span lang="DE">Q: Untuk universitas tujuan sendiri apakah sudah ditentukan oleh DAAD?<o:p></o:p></span></div>
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<span lang="DE">A: <span style="color: #4472c4;">Ini tergantung program beasiswa. Normalnya bisa pilih universitas sendiri (apply terpisah dari beasiswa), tapi juga ada yang universitasnya sudah ditentukan oleh program beasiswa tersebut (biasanya sesuai dengan fokus bidang studi program).</span></span><span lang="DE" style="color: #4472c4;"></span><span style="color: #4472c4;"><o:p></o:p></span></div>
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<!--[if !supportLists]--><span style="mso-bidi-font-family: Calibri; mso-bidi-theme-font: minor-latin;"><span style="mso-list: Ignore;">6.<span style="font: 7.0pt "Times New Roman";"> </span></span></span><!--[endif]-->Q: Apakah ada program beasiswa untuk S1<o:p></o:p></div>
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<span style="color: #4472c4;">A: Berdasarkan informasi di website DAAD Jakarta dan sepengetahuan saya, selama ini tidak ada. Tapi btw ramai orang Indo yang kuliah S1 di Jerman, karena biaya SPP kuliah di Jerman gratis. Selengkapnya bisa googling, banyak tulisan pengalaman orang.<o:p></o:p></span></div>
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<span lang="DE">7. Q: Jika ada apakah dalam bahasa Jerman atau Inggris?<o:p></o:p></span></div>
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<span style="color: #4472c4;">A: Program studi S1 rata-rata dalam bahasa Jerman.<o:p></o:p></span></div>
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8. Q: Jurusan apa saja untuk beasiswa S1?<o:p></o:p></div>
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<span style="color: #4472c4;">A: Sangat variatif, bisa dipilih sendiri disini:<o:p></o:p></span></div>
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<a href="https://www.daad.de/deutschland/studienangebote/international-programmes/en/?p=l&q=&degree%5b%5d=2&fos=0&fee%5b%5d=0&sortBy=1&page=1&display=list" style="color: #954f72; text-decoration: underline;"><span lang="DE">https://www.daad.de/deutschland/studienangebote/international-programmes/en/?p=l&q=&degree[]=2&fos=0&fee[]=0&sortBy=1&page=1&display=list</span></a><span lang="DE"> </span><span style="color: #4472c4;"><o:p></o:p></span></div>
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9. Q: Beasiswa yang kakak ikuti khusus anak Aceh dan kuliah di Aceh ya kak? Ada gak univ recommend kakak untuk jurusan Business Chemistry di Jerman?<o:p></o:p></div>
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A: <span style="color: #4472c4;">Khusus masyarakat Aceh (ber-KTP Aceh, tidak harus berlatar S1 di Aceh) dan selanjutnya disekolahkan/kuliah di Jerman. Bachelor or Master in Business Chemistry? </span><span lang="DE" style="color: #4472c4;">Menarik juga, belum pernah denger program studi ini. Anyway bisa lihat dan pilih sendiri disini: <o:p></o:p></span></div>
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<span lang="DE" style="color: #4472c4;"><a href="https://www.daad.de/deutschland/studienangebote/international-programmes/en/?p=l&q=Business%20Chemistry&degree%5b%5d=2&fos=0&fee%5b%5d=0&sortBy=1&page=1&display=list" style="color: #954f72; text-decoration: underline;">https://www.daad.de/deutschland/studienangebote/international-programmes/en/?p=l&q=Business%20Chemistry&degree[]=2&fos=0&fee[]=0&sortBy=1&page=1&display=list</a></span><span lang="DE" style="color: #4472c4;"><o:p></o:p></span></div>
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<span lang="DE">10. Q: Kalau untuk S2 dengan beasiswa DAAD apakah harus lolos beasiswa dulu, lalu baru daftar ke kampus tujuan?<o:p></o:p></span></div>
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<span style="color: #4472c4;">A: Sudah dijawab di pertanyaan ke-2 pada hari Minggu.<o:p></o:p></span></div>
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11. Q: Kalau professor di kampus tujuan menentukannya sebaiknya sebelum daftar beasiswa atau biasanya saat sudah diterima beasiswa kak?<o:p></o:p></div>
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<span style="color: #4472c4;">A: Pertanyaannya masih agak rancu. </span><span lang="DE" style="color: #4472c4;">Biasanya yang ditentukan professor untuk jenjang S3. </span><span style="color: #4472c4;">Lebih baik kalua proposalnya sudah accepted by professor, tapi juga possible untuk melewati proses beasiswa dulu.<o:p></o:p></span></div>
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12. Q: Kak apakah beasiswa DAAD hanya untuk bidang tertentu saja?<o:p></o:p></div>
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<span style="color: #4472c4;">A: Sudah dijawab di pertanyaan ke-3 pada hari Minggu (related question to this one) dan bisa cek sendiri website yang saya berikan di materi (bagian program beasiswa DAAD).<o:p></o:p></span></div>
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13. Q: Untuk apply DAAD apakah harus memiliki LoA terlebih dahulu atau tidak?<o:p></o:p></div>
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<span lang="EN-US">A: </span><span style="color: #4472c4;">Sudah dijawab di pertanyaan ke-2 pada hari Minggu.</span><span lang="EN-US" style="color: #4472c4;"><o:p></o:p></span></div>
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<span lang="DE">14. Q: </span>Saya mau tanya mengenai beasiswa EPOS. Apakah beasiswa EPOS full scholarship? Apa saja yang dicover beasiswa tersebut?<o:p></o:p></div>
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<span lang="EN-US">A: <span style="color: #4472c4;">Coba dibuka program tersebut di website DAAD dan dibaca serta dipahami dengan teliti. Kalau tidak ada informasi biasa ditanya</span></span><span style="color: #4472c4;">kan ke pihak DAAD via email. Ini ranah kebijakan beasiswa saya tidak bisa jawab dengan tepat/kredibel, karena saya juga saya bukan dari program ini.</span><span lang="EN-US" style="color: #4472c4;"><o:p></o:p></span></div>
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15. Q: Jika akreditasi kampus belum terdata di Anabin, apakah bisa mengajukan kelengkapan administrasi DAAD bersamaan dengan dokumen-dokumen sertifikat Ban-pt, surat rektor, surat pengantar direktur Ban-pt, dan surat pengantar pribadi tentang akreditas kampus?<o:p></o:p></div>
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<span lang="EN-US">A: <span style="color: #4472c4;">Kemungkinan bisa. </span></span><span lang="DE" style="color: #4472c4;">Again, ini ranah kebijakan dan persyaratan beasiswa, bisa langsung dihubungi DAAD.<o:p></o:p></span></div>
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<span lang="DE">16. Q: Apa kuliah d Jerman itu wajib memakai bahasa Jerman? Dan kalau misalnya kita tidak sesuai dengan target dari beasiswa, apa kita diminta ganti rugi sama penyedia beasisnya?<o:p></o:p></span></div>
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<span lang="DE">A:<span style="color: #4472c4;"></span><span style="color: #4472c4;">Sudah dijawab di pertanyaan ke-2 pada hari Minggu. Apa target yang kamu maksud? </span></span><span style="color: #4472c4;">Kalau kelulusan lewat dari batas durasi pembiayaan, sejauh ini konsekuensinya adalah lewat dari durasi beasiswa, awardee harus bayar sendiri seluruh biaya. </span><span lang="DE" style="color: #4472c4;">Jika gagal lulus, ini tergantung SK, setiap program berbeda-beda.<o:p></o:p></span></div>
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17. Q: Apa sih alasan kakak memilih apply beasiswa DAAD Jerman untuk melanjutkan S2 and what are your plans for after graduation?<o:p></o:p></div>
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A: <span style="color: #4472c4;">Very nostalgic, serasa kembali ke interview 2 tahun lalu. </span><span lang="DE" style="color: #4472c4;">Tbh, karena ini yang lulus dari beberapa scholarship yang saya daftar. Inshaa Allah kalau lancar studi master dan diberikan kesempatan (dan beasiswa), lanjut ke jenjang doctoral.<o:p></o:p></span></div>
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<span lang="DE">18. Q: Kalau DAAD kan harus ada pengalaman kerja min. 2 tahun gak salah saya. Nah itu kerjaannya harus sejalur dengan jurusan waktu kuliah atau bisa nggak? </span>Misalnya, rencana S2-nya berbeda dengan jurusan S1-nya tetapi sejalur dg kerjaan. <o:p></o:p></div>
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<span style="color: #4472c4;">A: Saya gak tau program mana yang harus ada pengalaman kerja. Karena program saya (dan kebanyakan program kolega awardee yang saya kenal, kecuali program DAAD-Dikti/Dosen) tidak memerlukan pengalaman kerja. Tapi untuk masalah linearitas jurusan yang kamu utarakan di contoh itu sangat penting dan di-consider oleh pihak universitas di Jerman yang kamu apply nantinya, usahakan linear atau paling tidak related. Tetap ada kemungkinan untuk diterima jika tidak linear, tapi sulit dan sangat complicated, sudah dialami teman saya yang S1 dan S2 tidak linear, check disini untuk effort dia:<o:p></o:p></span></div>
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<span style="color: #4472c4;">http://www.mahasiswa-aceh.de/how-to-get-a-letter-of-admission-from-germany-universities/</span><span style="color: #4472c4;"><o:p></o:p></span></div>
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19. Q: Kalau sudah dapat loa tapi beasiswa belum dapat untuk tahun tersebut. Apakah bisa untuk tahun berikutnya? <o:p></o:p></div>
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<span style="color: #4472c4;">A: Kalau program beasiswa saya bisa, selama masih dalam kurun 1 tahun sejak lulus beasiswa. Again, beda program beda kebijakan (baca jawaban di pertanyaan-pertanyaan sebelum ini).<o:p></o:p></span></div>
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20. Q: Tantangan terbesar menurut abang kuliah disana itu apa dan bagaimana mengatasinya? <o:p></o:p></div>
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A: <span style="color: #4472c4;">Very very important question, I would say. Knowledge gap yang sangat besar antara ilmu S1 dan ilmu (yang harus di-cover) S2 Jerman. Di tahun pertama kuliah, tidak sedikit mahasiswa Indonesia bakal struggle dan menghabiskan waktu belajar untuk catch-up materi-materi dasar atau memperkecil knowledge gap tersebut. Jadi dibaca ulang bahan kuliah S1 sebelum berangkat S2 dan ikut introductory courses yang ditawarkan kampus Jerman. Kalau untuk M.Sc. Economics, saya sarankan untuk memiliki deep understanding materi calculus/algebra, statistics dan fundamental micro-/macroeconomics. Setelah saya lulus, saya mungkin akan buat tulisan khusus tentang ini di blog saya, nanti inshaa Allah saya share ke kamu melalui SBC Kalbar. Mungkin juga sudah banyak tulisan tentang ini di Google, check it out.<o:p></o:p></span></div>
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21. Q: Saya mau tanya, Kakak mulai membuat mot.let. itu sejak masih S1 atau sudah selesai S1? Lalu kalau di Banda Aceh itu kantor LPSDM Aceh dimana ya kak? <span lang="DE">Dan berapa tahun proses Kakak untuk bisa menjadi awardee? Apa sekali tes kak langsung lulus?<o:p></o:p></span></div>
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A: <span style="color: #4472c4;">Start mulai selesai S1 dan proses sampai bisa dapat beasiswa terhitung 2 tahun sejak lulus. Banyak beasiswa yang saya applied dan kebetulan untuk beasiswa langsung lulus. Kalau tertarik untuk apply beasiswa seperti saya, check interview penanggung jawab program beasiswa disini </span><span style="color: #4472c4;"><a href="http://www.mahasiswa-aceh.de/interview-beasiswa-daad-aceh-scholarships-of-excellence-bersama-ibu-muji-rahayu-daad-jakarta/" style="color: #954f72; text-decoration: underline;">http://www.mahasiswa-aceh.de/interview-beasiswa-daad-aceh-scholarships-of-excellence-bersama-ibu-muji-rahayu-daad-jakarta/</a>.</span><span style="color: #4472c4;">Kantor LPSDM Aceh terletak di kantor Gubernur Aceh.<o:p></o:p></span></div>
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22. Q: Kira kira ada tidak universitas di Jerman apakah terdapat jurusan akuntansi kak? Bagaimana sistem pembelajaran yang ada di Jerman ya kak? Jika ada itu ada di universitas di mana ya kak? Apakah menggunakan bahasa Jerman atau bahasa inggris? Yang saya tahu informasi dari Gita Savitri atau gitasav dari blog Youtube-nya, sistem pembelajaran nya menggunakan full bahasa Jerman?<o:p></o:p></div>
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<span style="color: #4472c4;">A: Ada. Beberapa pertanyaan kamu sudah dijawab di pertanyaan sebelumnya, dibaca lagi. </span><span lang="DE" style="color: #4472c4;">Untuk detail system pembelajaran, bisa dicek di universitas tujuan, berbeda-beda untuk setiap program studi. Gitasav kuliah S1 di Jerman yang rata-rata program studi S1 memang berbahasa Jerman, meskipun dia sekarang lanjut kuliah S2, pasti dia memilih program studi dalam bahasa Jerman, karena sudah nyaman perhaps.<o:p></o:p></span></div>
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<span lang="DE">23. Q: Alasan kakak memilih jerman dalam menempuh kuliah S2 jurusan ekonomi apa ya kak? </span>Padahal yang saya tahu jerman itu notabene jurusan yang dikenal adalah teknik?<o:p></o:p></div>
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A<span style="color: #4472c4;">: Lagi-lagi ada yang menginterview saya (LoL). Karena S1 saya juga Economics dan saya ingin linearitas, jadi saya pilih M.Sc. Economics. </span><span lang="EN-US" style="color: #4472c4;">Kalau yang kamu </span><span style="color: #4472c4;">tahu</span><span style="color: #4472c4;"></span><span style="color: #4472c4;">cuma jurusan teknik</span><span lang="EN-US" style="color: #4472c4;">, kamu masih kurang research tentang ini</span><span style="color: #4472c4;">, cuma bersumber dari film “Habibie Ainun”</span><span lang="EN-US" style="color: #4472c4;">. Ini penting untuk diketahui bahwa banyak sekali program studi unggulan</span><span lang="EN-US" style="color: #4472c4;"></span><span lang="EN-US" style="color: #4472c4;">di Jerman selain teknik, banyak di antaranya menjadi one </span><span style="color: #4472c4;">of t</span><span lang="EN-US" style="color: #4472c4;">he best in the world.</span><span style="color: #4472c4;">Di kampus saya malah tidak ada jurusan teknik, tapi termasuk 1 dari 11 elite universities yang diprogramkan oleh pemerintah Jerman (dan ranked 100 besar world university ranking, walaupun rankingnya menurut saya kurang fair karena kampus Jerman mostly berbahasa Jerman dalam publikasi sehingga kalah dari USA dan UK dalam system penilaian). Contoh, jurusan Biomedical di </span><span style="color: #4472c4;">University of Tuebingen</span><span style="color: #4472c4;">mempunyai salah satu rumah sakit yang menjadi rujukan dunia untuk penyakit leukemia. Malaria Research pusatnya juga di kampus tersebut. Microbiology, Neuroscience, Geoscience, Theology Studies, Anthropology dan masih banyak lagi yang populer di level dunia. </span><span style="color: #4472c4;">Department of Economics University of Tuebingen juga tidak kalah menarik, merupakan yang tertua di Jerman, sudah 200 tahun, tempat dimana saya belajar. </span><span style="color: #4472c4;">Dan ini hanya untuk kampus dimana saya kuliah, banyak lagi leading university di Jerman. By the way, kenapa belajar ekonomi di Jerman sudah obvious karena Jerman merupakan 5 besar ekonomi dunia in the last couple decades. Selain itu siapa yang gak kenal produk Jerman, apa branding-nya tidak menggunakan ilmu industrial Economics? Not bad ya Jerman, so why not.</span><span lang="EN-US" style="color: #4472c4;"><o:p></o:p></span></div>
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24. Q: Bagaimana cara kakak menghadapi lingkungan kuliah atau pembelajaran di Jerman yang benar benar berbeda di Indonesia?<o:p></o:p></div>
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A: <span style="color: #4472c4;">Sudah dijawab di pertanyaan sebelumnya, silahkan baca. Pesan saya: (1) Sisi akademik: review materi kuliah S1, perdalam fundamental teori dari materi S1, dan kuatkan math/calculus/algebra, statistics dan softskill dalam pemograman bagi yang mengambil Master of Science (M.Sc.), (2) Sisi psikologis: Kuatkan mental dan kemandirian, perbanyak ibadah dan (3) Dan lain-lain: bisa di-browsing di Google, banyak booklet persiapan kuliah ke luar negeri.<o:p></o:p></span></div>
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25. Q: Tadi kan kakak bilang kalo udah kerja atau udah diterima di BUMN dan ternyata bareng juga sama pengumuman lolos beasiswa, dengan pertimbangan apa kakak lebih memilih beasiswa daripada kerja di BUMN?<o:p></o:p></div>
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A<span style="color: #4472c4;">: Karena saya</span><span lang="EN-US" style="color: #4472c4;">lolos kerja di </span><span style="color: #4472c4;">Peg****an</span><span lang="EN-US" style="color: #4472c4;">, yang bukan termasuk </span><span style="color: #4472c4;">“BUMN </span><span lang="EN-US" style="color: #4472c4;">kelas 1“</span><span style="color: #4472c4;">. Tidak ada porgram yang diberikan perusahaan untuk lanjut kuliah S2. Karena saya sangat ingin melanjutkan S2 untuk memperdalam ilmu dan mempersiapkan diri untuk jangka panjang, khususnya sekolah di luar negeri untuk mendapatkan pengalaman hidup yang berwarna, dapat menjalani/merasakan/melihat “strata tertinggi” kehidupan di dunia, “manusia paling maju di dunia” (i.e. masyarakat Eropa) dan memperoleh ilmu dari sana.</span><span lang="EN-US" style="color: #4472c4;"><o:p></o:p></span></div>
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26. Q: Untuk wanita berjilbab apakah disana ditoleransi kak?<o:p></o:p></div>
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A<span style="color: #4472c4;">: Alhamdulillah sangat aman. Mungkin hanya sebagian kecil di beberapa kota di daerah „Jerman Timur“ seperti Dresden, Weimar, etc. Tapi mostly aman karena pemikiran penduduknya sudah maju.<o:p></o:p></span></div>
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27. Q: Bagaimana jam kuliah disana kak? Dan apakah ada penerima beasiswa yang juga bekerja part time disana kak?<o:p></o:p></div>
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A<span style="color: #4472c4;">: Variatif. Jam kuliah tergantung program studi dan universitas tujuan. Bisa part-time dengan pendapatan maksimal 450 euro, tapi harus bisa berbahasa Jerman.<o:p></o:p></span></div>
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28. Q: Rata-rata biaya hidup per bulan disana berapa kak? <o:p></o:p></div>
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<span lang="DE">A: <span style="color: #4472c4;">Sangat relative masing-masing individu dan kota di Jerman (di negara bagian Baden-Wurttemberg dan Bayern cenderung mahal). Kalau seperti saya yang uang beasiswanya sedikit, tidak banyak belanja dan makan diluar, dan setiap hari masak di rumah, 100-150 euro per bulan cukup + accommodation cost sekitar 300-350 euro.<o:p></o:p></span></span></div>
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<span style="font-family: "timesnewromanpsmt"; font-size: 12pt;">29. Q: </span><span style="font-family: "timesnewromanpsmt"; font-size: 12pt;">Kalau yang kakak paparkan dari macam2 beasiswa DAAD tu saya tidak menemukan untuk bidang science, especialy kimia, ex.: biomaterial atau polimer. Nah menurut kakak apakah ada beasiswa dari DAAD untuk kimia?</span></div>
<span style="color: black; font-family: "timesnewromanpsmt"; font-size: 12pt;">A: </span><span style="font-family: "timesnewromanpsmt"; font-size: 12pt;"><span style="color: #3d85c6;">Wah kalo sudah masuk ranah program DAAD, saya kurang tau detailnya. Mungkin bisa cek di program EPOS atau NaWaM, barangkali ada yang related walaupun gak persis seperti yang diinginkan. Tapi seharusnya informasi ini ada di link yang saya berikan. Apa yang ada disana, itulah semua program beasiswa DAAD untuk masyarakat Indonesia.</span></span><br />
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<span style="font-family: "timesnewromanpsmt"; font-size: 12pt;">30. Q: Untuk apply DAAD, apakah kita harus punya LoA dulu dari univ. Jerman?</span><br />
<span style="font-family: "timesnewromanpsmt"; font-size: 12pt;">A: </span><span style="color: #4472c4; font-family: "times new roman"; font-size: 12pt; text-align: justify;">Tidak perlu. Kalo ada mungkin lebih bagus. Again, ini tergantung persyaratan umum program beasiswa itu masing-masing. Silahkan dicek dulu syarat2nya.</span><br />
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<span style="font-family: "timesnewromanpsmt"; font-size: 12pt;">31. Q: Untuk lanjut S2, haruskah memiliki seritifikat bahasa Jerman kak? Atau cukup dengan IELTS aja?</span></div>
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A: <span style="color: #4472c4; font-family: "times new roman"; font-size: 12pt; text-align: justify;">Good question. Kemampuan bahasa jerman tidak perlu perlu, selama program studi di Jerman yang kamu apply taught-in-english. Jadi cukup IELTS saja. Nanti setelah lulus DAAD, barulah awardee wajib mengikuti kursus German yang dibiayai DAAD tentunya (dan harus lulus ujiannya, ini sedikit stressful sih memang, karena German memang susah)</span></div>
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32. Q: <span style="font-family: "timesnewromanpsmt"; font-size: 12pt;">DAAD scholarship punya bnyak macam program (termasuk program DAAD khusus untuk aceh) program apa yang ada di DAAD scholarship yang bisa diambil untuk orang yang sudah punya LoA di salah satu univ jerman?</span></div>
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A: <span style="font-family: "timesnewromanpsmt"; font-size: 12pt;"><span style="color: #3d85c6;">Ini sama seperti pertanyaan sebelumnya. Untuk informasi ini ada di link yang saya berikan. Apa yang ada disana, itulah semua program beasiswa DAAD untuk masyarakat Indonesia. Karena saya bukan pegawai DAAD, jadi detailnya saya tidak tau. Jadi sepengetahuan saya, baik sudah punya LoA atau belum, program beasiswa yang ditawarkan DAAD sama saja untuk keduanya.</span></span></div>
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<span style="font-family: "timesnewromanpsmt"; font-size: 12pt;"><span style="color: #3d85c6;">Again, mungkin penting untuk teman2 semua, cek lagi ke website DAAD Jakarta atau bisa bertanya langsung ke kantor DAAD Jakarta (dibuka untuk umum) atau melalui correspondence email atau hotline mereka. Inshaa Allah mereka akan jawab. Karena seperti yg saya jelaskan di materi saya part introduction, salah satu jasa yg diberikan DAAD adalah "Individual counselling kesempatan studi dan beasiswa di Jerman".</span></span></div>
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33. Q: <span style="font-family: "timesnewromanpsmt"; font-size: 12pt;">Apakah beasiswa DAAD full meng-cover untuk yang sudah bekeluarga?</span></div>
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<span style="color: black; font-family: "timesnewromanpsmt"; font-size: 12pt;">A: </span><span style="font-family: "timesnewromanpsmt"; font-size: 12pt;"><span style="color: #3d85c6;">Great! ini important question. Beasiswa saya tidak cover family allowance, karena dananya dari pemerintah daerah yang menentukan kebijakan funding. Yang saya dengar dari teman beasiswa DAAD reguler, ada family allowance sebesar 500 euro/month. CMIIW, cek lagi di Google. Tapi di Jerman, foreigner bisa apply family allowance ke kantor walikota (Stadtbüro/Ausländeramt) di Kota Jerman tempat anda tinggal, dan bisa dapet subsidi anak kalo gak salah 250 euro/anak dan maksimal disubsidi 2 anak. Juga bisa dapat subsidi biaya sekolah, apply juga ke kantor walikota.</span></span></div>
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<span style="font-family: "timesnewromanpsmt";"><span style="caret-color: rgb(61, 133, 198);">34. Q: </span></span><span style="font-family: "timesnewromanpsmt"; font-size: 12pt;">Untuk universitas tujuan sendiri apakah sudah ditentukan oleh DAAD?</span><br />
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<span style="font-family: "timesnewromanpsmt"; font-size: 12pt;">A:</span><span style="color: #1f4e79; font-family: "timesnewromanpsmt"; font-size: 12pt;"> </span><span style="font-family: "timesnewromanpsmt"; font-size: 12pt;"><span style="color: #3d85c6;">Tergantung program. Ada program yang universitasnya sudah ditentukan, ada program yang universitas tujuan harus pilih sendiri.</span></span></div>
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<div style="text-align: left;">
<b><span lang="DE">Kalau masih ada pertanyaan seputar kuliah di Jerman pada khususnya, aplikasi beasiswa/universitas dan juga tentang beasiswa, bisa dibaca kumpulan tulisan teman-teman beasiswa program DAAD-Aceh sejak batch yang berangkat pada 10 tahun silam, di sini <a href="http://www.mahasiswa-aceh.de/content-list/">http://www.mahasiswa-aceh.de/content-list/</a><o:p></o:p></span></b></div>
</div>
</div>
Teuku Bahran Basyiranhttp://www.blogger.com/profile/10525417589204464156noreply@blogger.com0tag:blogger.com,1999:blog-3600626824018511994.post-20851016065771134172012-12-04T20:06:00.000+01:002013-03-23T06:23:38.120+01:00Perubahan Struktur Industri di Negara Berkembang<br />
<div style="text-align: justify;">
<span style="font-family: Calibri, sans-serif; font-size: medium;"><span style="line-height: 21.111112594604492px;"><i>Oleh: T. Bahran Basyiran</i></span></span></div>
<div style="line-height: 115%; text-align: justify;">
<b><u><span style="font-family: "Calibri","sans-serif"; font-size: 14.0pt; line-height: 115%; mso-ascii-theme-font: minor-latin; mso-bidi-font-size: 12.0pt; mso-bidi-theme-font: minor-latin; mso-hansi-theme-font: minor-latin;"><br /></span></u></b></div>
<div style="line-height: 115%; text-align: justify;">
<b><u><span style="font-family: "Calibri","sans-serif"; font-size: 14.0pt; line-height: 115%; mso-ascii-theme-font: minor-latin; mso-bidi-font-size: 12.0pt; mso-bidi-theme-font: minor-latin; mso-hansi-theme-font: minor-latin;">Pendahuluan<o:p></o:p></span></u></b></div>
<div class="MsoNormal" style="text-align: justify; text-indent: 14.2pt;">
<span style="font-size: 12.0pt; line-height: 115%; mso-bidi-font-family: Calibri; mso-bidi-theme-font: minor-latin;">Pembangunan ekonomi untuk periode jangka
panjang di suatu negara, membawa perubahan yang sangat esensial terutama dalam
struktur ekonomi negara tersebut. Perubahan itu dari ekonomi tradisional yang
menitikberatkan pada sektor pertanian ke sektor ekonomi modern yang didominasi
oleh sektor industri sebagai mesin utama pembangunan.</span><span style="font-size: 12.0pt; line-height: 115%; mso-ansi-language: EN-US; mso-bidi-font-family: Calibri; mso-bidi-theme-font: minor-latin;"> </span><span lang="DE" style="font-size: 12.0pt; line-height: 115%; mso-ansi-language: DE; mso-bidi-font-family: Calibri; mso-bidi-font-size: 11.0pt; mso-bidi-theme-font: minor-latin;"><o:p></o:p></span></div>
<div class="MsoNormal" style="text-align: justify; text-indent: 14.2pt;">
<span lang="EN-US" style="font-size: 12.0pt; line-height: 115%; mso-ansi-language: EN-US; mso-bidi-font-size: 11.0pt;">M</span><span style="font-size: 12.0pt; line-height: 115%; mso-bidi-font-size: 11.0pt;">otor utama transformasi struktur ekonomi </span><span lang="EN-US" style="font-size: 12.0pt; line-height: 115%; mso-ansi-language: EN-US; mso-bidi-font-size: 11.0pt;">s</span><span style="font-size: 12.0pt; line-height: 115%; mso-bidi-font-size: 11.0pt;">uatu negara </span><span lang="EN-US" style="font-size: 12.0pt; line-height: 115%; mso-ansi-language: EN-US; mso-bidi-font-size: 11.0pt;">berkembang tersebut </span><span style="font-size: 12.0pt; line-height: 115%; mso-bidi-font-size: 11.0pt;">bukan hanya pergeseran dari sektor
pertanian ke sektor industri</span><span lang="EN-US" style="font-size: 12.0pt; line-height: 115%; mso-ansi-language: EN-US; mso-bidi-font-size: 11.0pt;">, atau yang disebut dengan industrialisasi, tetapi p</span><span style="font-size: 12.0pt; line-height: 115%; mso-bidi-font-size: 11.0pt;">roses
transformasi tersebut juga mencakup pergeseran struktur
industri dari waktu ke waktu</span><span lang="EN-US" style="font-size: 12.0pt; line-height: 115%; mso-ansi-language: EN-US; mso-bidi-font-size: 11.0pt;"> (dalam jangka panjang).</span><span lang="EN-US" style="font-size: 12.0pt; line-height: 115%; mso-bidi-font-size: 11.0pt;"> </span><span lang="EN-US" style="font-size: 12.0pt; line-height: 115%; mso-ansi-language: EN-US; mso-bidi-font-size: 11.0pt;">M</span><span style="font-size: 12.0pt; line-height: 115%; mso-bidi-font-size: 11.0pt;">isalnya</span><span lang="EN-US" style="font-size: 12.0pt; line-height: 115%; mso-ansi-language: EN-US; mso-bidi-font-size: 11.0pt;">,</span><span style="font-size: 12.0pt; line-height: 115%; mso-bidi-font-size: 11.0pt;"> dengan
dimilikinya keunggulan komparatif akibat pergeseran dari kegiatan
produksi yang bersifat padat karya dan berteknologi rendah ke arah kegiatan
produksi yang lebih padat modal dan berteknologi tinggi.</span><span lang="EN-US" style="font-size: 12.0pt; line-height: 115%; mso-ansi-language: EN-US; mso-bidi-font-size: 11.0pt;"><o:p></o:p></span></div>
<div class="MsoNormal" style="text-align: justify; text-indent: 14.2pt;">
<span style="font-size: 12.0pt; line-height: 115%; mso-bidi-font-family: Calibri; mso-bidi-theme-font: minor-latin;">Struktur Industri</span><span style="font-size: 12.0pt; line-height: 115%; mso-ansi-language: EN-US; mso-bidi-font-family: Calibri; mso-bidi-theme-font: minor-latin;"> </span><span style="font-size: 12.0pt; line-height: 115%; mso-bidi-font-family: Calibri; mso-bidi-theme-font: minor-latin;">adalah</span><span style="font-size: 12.0pt; line-height: 115%; mso-ansi-language: EN-US; mso-bidi-font-family: Calibri; mso-bidi-theme-font: minor-latin;"> </span><span style="font-size: 12.0pt; line-height: 115%; mso-bidi-font-family: Calibri; mso-bidi-theme-font: minor-latin;">struktur
ekonomi yang didominasi oleh sektor industri.</span><span style="font-size: 12.0pt; line-height: 115%; mso-ansi-language: EN-US; mso-bidi-font-family: Calibri; mso-bidi-theme-font: minor-latin;"> </span><span style="font-size: 12.0pt; line-height: 115%; mso-bidi-font-family: Calibri; mso-bidi-theme-font: minor-latin;">Struktur
industri menggambarkan bagaimana industri diorganisasikan. Hal ini terkait
dengan hubungan dari (a) sesama produsen</span><span lang="EN-US" style="font-size: 12.0pt; line-height: 115%; mso-ansi-language: EN-US; mso-bidi-font-family: Calibri; mso-bidi-theme-font: minor-latin;">;</span><span style="font-size: 12.0pt; line-height: 115%; mso-bidi-font-family: Calibri; mso-bidi-theme-font: minor-latin;"> (b) sesama konsumen</span><span lang="EN-US" style="font-size: 12.0pt; line-height: 115%; mso-ansi-language: EN-US; mso-bidi-font-family: Calibri; mso-bidi-theme-font: minor-latin;">;</span><span style="font-size: 12.0pt; line-height: 115%; mso-bidi-font-family: Calibri; mso-bidi-theme-font: minor-latin;"> (c) produsen dan konsumen</span><span lang="EN-US" style="font-size: 12.0pt; line-height: 115%; mso-ansi-language: EN-US; mso-bidi-font-family: Calibri; mso-bidi-theme-font: minor-latin;">;</span><span style="font-size: 12.0pt; line-height: 115%; mso-bidi-font-family: Calibri; mso-bidi-theme-font: minor-latin;"> dan (d) produsen, yang telah ada terhadap
produsen baru yang masuk ke pasar (Bain</span><span lang="EN-US" style="font-size: 12.0pt; line-height: 115%; mso-ansi-language: EN-US; mso-bidi-font-family: Calibri; mso-bidi-theme-font: minor-latin;">:</span><span style="font-size: 12.0pt; line-height: 115%; mso-bidi-font-family: Calibri; mso-bidi-theme-font: minor-latin;"> 1968). Menurut teori ekonomi industri,
struktur industri menentukan tingkat kompetisi dan merupakan faktor yang
berpengaruh pada perilaku dan kinerja dari suatu industri
(perusahaan-perusahaan yang ada dalam industri). Oleh karenanya, analisa
struktur industri merupakan pijakan awal untuk mengkaji suatu industri. <o:p></o:p></span></div>
<div style="line-height: 115%; text-align: justify; text-indent: 14.2pt;">
<span style="font-family: "Calibri","sans-serif"; mso-ascii-theme-font: minor-latin; mso-bidi-theme-font: minor-latin; mso-hansi-theme-font: minor-latin;">Struktur industri
didefinisikan dalam terminologi distribusi jumlah dan ukuran dari
perusahaan-perusahaan yang ada dalam industri (Bain</span><span lang="EN-US" style="font-family: "Calibri","sans-serif"; mso-ansi-language: EN-US; mso-ascii-theme-font: minor-latin; mso-bidi-theme-font: minor-latin; mso-hansi-theme-font: minor-latin;">:</span><span style="font-family: "Calibri","sans-serif"; mso-ascii-theme-font: minor-latin; mso-bidi-theme-font: minor-latin; mso-hansi-theme-font: minor-latin;">
1968). Struktur industri merupakan cerminan dari struktur pasar suatu industri
(Kuncoro</span><span lang="EN-US" style="font-family: "Calibri","sans-serif"; mso-ansi-language: EN-US; mso-ascii-theme-font: minor-latin; mso-bidi-theme-font: minor-latin; mso-hansi-theme-font: minor-latin;">: </span><span style="font-family: "Calibri","sans-serif"; mso-ascii-theme-font: minor-latin; mso-bidi-theme-font: minor-latin; mso-hansi-theme-font: minor-latin;">2007). Dalam studi empiris mengenai struktur industri, digunakan
pengukuran konsentrasi untuk mengukur intensitas dari persaingan dalam
industri. Konsentrasi industri ini menginformasikan ukuran relatif dari
perusahaan-perusahaan yang ada pada pasar (Jacobson</span><span lang="EN-US" style="font-family: "Calibri","sans-serif"; mso-ansi-language: EN-US; mso-ascii-theme-font: minor-latin; mso-bidi-theme-font: minor-latin; mso-hansi-theme-font: minor-latin;">:</span><span style="font-family: "Calibri","sans-serif"; mso-ascii-theme-font: minor-latin; mso-bidi-theme-font: minor-latin; mso-hansi-theme-font: minor-latin;">
1996). </span><br />
<a name='more'></a><span lang="EN-US" style="font-family: "Calibri","sans-serif"; mso-ansi-language: EN-US; mso-ascii-theme-font: minor-latin; mso-bidi-theme-font: minor-latin; mso-hansi-theme-font: minor-latin;"><o:p></o:p></span></div>
<div class="MsoNormal" style="text-align: justify; text-indent: 14.2pt;">
<span lang="EN-US" style="font-size: 12.0pt; line-height: 115%; mso-ansi-language: EN-US; mso-bidi-font-size: 11.0pt;">P</span><span style="font-size: 12.0pt; line-height: 115%; mso-bidi-font-size: 11.0pt;">ergeseran </span><span lang="EN-US" style="font-size: 12.0pt; line-height: 115%; mso-ansi-language: EN-US; mso-bidi-font-size: 11.0pt;">struktur
industri seperti yang telah dijelaskandi atas </span><span style="font-size: 12.0pt; line-height: 115%; mso-bidi-font-size: 11.0pt;">itu dapat dalam berbagai
arti: beragam jenis atau kelompok barang menurut sifat penggunaannya, jenis
kandungan inputnya atau menurut orientasi pasar.</span><span lang="EN-US" style="font-size: 12.0pt; line-height: 115%; mso-ansi-language: EN-US; mso-bidi-font-size: 11.0pt;"> Yang juga selanjutnya disebut sebagai t</span><span lang="DE" style="font-size: 12.0pt; line-height: 115%; mso-ansi-language: DE; mso-bidi-font-family: Calibri; mso-bidi-font-size: 11.0pt; mso-bidi-theme-font: minor-latin;">ingkat
perkembangan industri, yang dapat dilihat dari pendalaman struktur industri itu
sendiri, yaitu sebagai berikut: <o:p></o:p></span></div>
<div class="MsoListParagraphCxSpFirst" style="margin-left: 14.2pt; mso-add-space: auto; mso-list: l3 level1 lfo4; text-align: justify; text-indent: -14.7pt;">
<!--[if !supportLists]--><span lang="DE" style="font-size: 12.0pt; line-height: 115%; mso-ansi-language: DE; mso-bidi-font-family: Calibri; mso-bidi-font-size: 11.0pt; mso-bidi-theme-font: minor-latin;">1.<span style="font-size: 7pt; line-height: normal;">
</span></span><!--[endif]--><span lang="DE" style="font-size: 12.0pt; line-height: 115%; mso-ansi-language: DE; mso-bidi-font-family: Calibri; mso-bidi-font-size: 11.0pt; mso-bidi-theme-font: minor-latin;">Ragam produk </span><span lang="DE" style="font-family: Wingdings; mso-ansi-language: DE; mso-ascii-font-family: Calibri; mso-ascii-theme-font: minor-latin; mso-char-type: symbol; mso-hansi-font-family: Calibri; mso-hansi-theme-font: minor-latin; mso-symbol-font-family: Wingdings;">è</span><span lang="DE" style="font-size: 12.0pt; line-height: 115%; mso-ansi-language: DE; mso-bidi-font-family: Calibri; mso-bidi-font-size: 11.0pt; mso-bidi-theme-font: minor-latin;"> Barang konsumsi, barang konsumsi sederhana, barang konsumsi dengan
kandungan teknologi yang lebih canggih, barang modal, dan barang-barang
lainnya.<o:p></o:p></span></div>
<div class="MsoListParagraphCxSpMiddle" style="margin-left: 14.2pt; mso-add-space: auto; mso-list: l3 level1 lfo4; text-align: justify; text-indent: -14.7pt;">
<!--[if !supportLists]--><span lang="DE" style="font-size: 12.0pt; line-height: 115%; mso-ansi-language: DE; mso-bidi-font-family: Calibri; mso-bidi-font-size: 11.0pt; mso-bidi-theme-font: minor-latin;">2.<span style="font-size: 7pt; line-height: normal;">
</span></span><!--[endif]--><span lang="DE" style="font-size: 12.0pt; line-height: 115%; mso-ansi-language: DE; mso-bidi-font-family: Calibri; mso-bidi-font-size: 11.0pt; mso-bidi-theme-font: minor-latin;">Intensitas pemakain
faktor produksi</span><span lang="DE" style="font-family: Wingdings; mso-ansi-language: DE; mso-ascii-font-family: Calibri; mso-ascii-theme-font: minor-latin; mso-char-type: symbol; mso-hansi-font-family: Calibri; mso-hansi-theme-font: minor-latin; mso-symbol-font-family: Wingdings;">è</span><span lang="DE" style="font-size: 12.0pt; line-height: 115%; mso-ansi-language: DE; mso-bidi-font-family: Calibri; mso-bidi-font-size: 11.0pt; mso-bidi-theme-font: minor-latin;"> Barang dengan padat karya dan barang dengan padat modal.<o:p></o:p></span></div>
<div class="MsoListParagraphCxSpLast" style="margin-left: 14.2pt; mso-add-space: auto; mso-list: l3 level1 lfo4; text-align: justify; text-indent: -14.7pt;">
<!--[if !supportLists]--><span lang="DE" style="font-size: 12.0pt; line-height: 115%; mso-ansi-language: DE; mso-bidi-font-family: Calibri; mso-bidi-font-size: 11.0pt; mso-bidi-theme-font: minor-latin;">3.<span style="font-size: 7pt; line-height: normal;">
</span></span><!--[endif]--><span lang="DE" style="font-size: 12.0pt; line-height: 115%; mso-ansi-language: DE; mso-bidi-font-family: Calibri; mso-bidi-font-size: 11.0pt; mso-bidi-theme-font: minor-latin;">Orientasi pasar </span><span lang="DE" style="font-family: Wingdings; mso-ansi-language: DE; mso-ascii-font-family: Calibri; mso-ascii-theme-font: minor-latin; mso-char-type: symbol; mso-hansi-font-family: Calibri; mso-hansi-theme-font: minor-latin; mso-symbol-font-family: Wingdings;">è</span><span lang="DE" style="font-size: 12.0pt; line-height: 115%; mso-ansi-language: DE; mso-bidi-font-family: Calibri; mso-bidi-font-size: 11.0pt; mso-bidi-theme-font: minor-latin;"> Barang domestik dan barang ekspor.<o:p></o:p></span></div>
<div class="MsoNormal" style="text-align: justify; text-indent: 14.2pt;">
<span lang="DE" style="font-size: 12.0pt; line-height: 115%; mso-ansi-language: DE; mso-bidi-font-family: Calibri; mso-bidi-font-size: 11.0pt; mso-bidi-theme-font: minor-latin;">Dan juga terdapat
faktor yang dapat mendorong perubahan struktur industri :<o:p></o:p></span></div>
<div class="MsoNormal" style="margin: 0cm 0cm 0.0001pt 18pt; text-align: justify; text-indent: -18pt;">
<!--[if !supportLists]--><span lang="DE" style="font-size: 12.0pt; mso-ansi-language: DE; mso-bidi-font-family: Calibri; mso-bidi-font-size: 11.0pt; mso-bidi-theme-font: minor-latin;">a)<span style="font-size: 7pt;"> </span></span><!--[endif]--><span lang="DE" style="font-size: 12.0pt; mso-ansi-language: DE; mso-bidi-font-family: Calibri; mso-bidi-font-size: 11.0pt; mso-bidi-theme-font: minor-latin;">Kemampuan teknologi dan inovasi.<o:p></o:p></span></div>
<div class="MsoNormal" style="margin: 0cm 0cm 0.0001pt 18pt; text-align: justify; text-indent: -18pt;">
<!--[if !supportLists]--><span lang="DE" style="font-size: 12.0pt; mso-ansi-language: DE; mso-bidi-font-family: Calibri; mso-bidi-font-size: 11.0pt; mso-bidi-theme-font: minor-latin;">b)<span style="font-size: 7pt;"> </span></span><!--[endif]--><span lang="DE" style="font-size: 12.0pt; mso-ansi-language: DE; mso-bidi-font-family: Calibri; mso-bidi-font-size: 11.0pt; mso-bidi-theme-font: minor-latin;">Laju pertumbuhan pendapatan nasional per
kapita.<o:p></o:p></span></div>
<div class="MsoNormal" style="margin: 0cm 0cm 0.0001pt 18pt; text-align: justify; text-indent: -18pt;">
<!--[if !supportLists]--><span lang="DE" style="font-size: 12.0pt; mso-ansi-language: DE; mso-bidi-font-family: Calibri; mso-bidi-font-size: 11.0pt; mso-bidi-theme-font: minor-latin;">c) <span style="font-size: 7pt;"></span></span><!--[endif]--><span lang="DE" style="font-size: 12.0pt; mso-ansi-language: DE; mso-bidi-font-family: Calibri; mso-bidi-font-size: 11.0pt; mso-bidi-theme-font: minor-latin;">Kondisi dan struktur awal perekonomian dalam
negeri. Negara yang pada awalnya memiliki industri dasar atau primer atau hulu
seperti baja, semen, kimia, dan industri tingkat menengah seperti mesin alat
produksi, akan mengalami proses perubahan struktur industri dengan lebih cepat.<o:p></o:p></span></div>
<div class="MsoNormal" style="margin: 0cm 0cm 0.0001pt 18pt; text-align: justify; text-indent: -18pt;">
<!--[if !supportLists]--><span lang="DE" style="font-size: 12.0pt; mso-ansi-language: DE; mso-bidi-font-family: Calibri; mso-bidi-font-size: 11.0pt; mso-bidi-theme-font: minor-latin;">d)<span style="font-size: 7pt;"></span></span><!--[endif]--><span lang="DE" style="font-size: 12.0pt; mso-ansi-language: DE; mso-bidi-font-family: Calibri; mso-bidi-font-size: 11.0pt; mso-bidi-theme-font: minor-latin;">Besar pangsa pasar dalam negeri yang
ditentukan oleh tingkat pendapatan dan jumlah penduduk. Contohnya, Indonesia
dengan 200 juta orang menyebabkan pertumbuhan kegiatan ekonomi sebesar sekian
terhadap atmosfir industri.<o:p></o:p></span></div>
<div class="MsoNormal" style="margin: 0cm 0cm 0.0001pt 18pt; text-align: justify; text-indent: -18pt;">
<!--[if !supportLists]--><span lang="DE" style="font-size: 12.0pt; mso-ansi-language: DE; mso-bidi-font-family: Calibri; mso-bidi-font-size: 11.0pt; mso-bidi-theme-font: minor-latin;">e)<span style="font-size: 7pt;"></span></span><!--[endif]--><span lang="DE" style="font-size: 12.0pt; mso-ansi-language: DE; mso-bidi-font-family: Calibri; mso-bidi-font-size: 11.0pt; mso-bidi-theme-font: minor-latin;">Keberadaan sumber daya alam (SDA). Negara
dengan SDA yang besar cenderung lebih lambat dalam mendorong percepatan
industri.<o:p></o:p></span></div>
<div class="MsoNormal" style="margin: 0cm 0cm 0.0001pt 18pt; text-align: justify; text-indent: -18pt;">
<!--[if !supportLists]--><span lang="DE" style="font-size: 12.0pt; mso-ansi-language: DE; mso-bidi-font-family: Calibri; mso-bidi-font-size: 11.0pt; mso-bidi-theme-font: minor-latin;">f)<span style="font-size: 7pt;"> </span></span><!--[endif]--><span lang="DE" style="font-size: 12.0pt; mso-ansi-language: DE; mso-bidi-font-family: Calibri; mso-bidi-font-size: 11.0pt; mso-bidi-theme-font: minor-latin;">Kebijakan dan/atau strategi pemerintah
seperti <i>tax holiday</i> dan bebas bea
masuk bagi industri orientasi ekspor.<o:p></o:p></span></div>
<div style="line-height: 115%; text-align: justify;">
<span lang="EN-US" style="font-family: "Calibri","sans-serif"; mso-ansi-language: EN-US; mso-ascii-theme-font: minor-latin; mso-bidi-theme-font: minor-latin; mso-hansi-theme-font: minor-latin;"><br /></span></div>
<div style="line-height: 115%; text-align: justify;">
<br /></div>
<div style="line-height: 115%; text-align: justify;">
<b><u><span style="font-family: "Calibri","sans-serif"; font-size: 14.0pt; line-height: 115%; mso-ascii-theme-font: minor-latin; mso-bidi-font-size: 12.0pt; mso-bidi-theme-font: minor-latin; mso-hansi-theme-font: minor-latin;">Penyebab
Perubahan Struktur Industri di Negara Berkembang</span></u></b><b><u><span lang="EN-US" style="font-family: "Calibri","sans-serif"; font-size: 14.0pt; line-height: 115%; mso-ansi-language: EN-US; mso-ascii-theme-font: minor-latin; mso-bidi-font-size: 12.0pt; mso-bidi-theme-font: minor-latin; mso-hansi-theme-font: minor-latin;"><o:p></o:p></span></u></b></div>
<div style="line-height: 115%; margin-left: 14.2pt; mso-list: l4 level1 lfo3; text-align: justify; text-indent: -14.15pt;">
<!--[if !supportLists]--><b><span lang="DE" style="font-family: "Calibri","sans-serif"; mso-ansi-language: DE; mso-ascii-theme-font: minor-latin; mso-bidi-theme-font: minor-latin; mso-fareast-font-family: Calibri; mso-fareast-theme-font: minor-latin; mso-hansi-theme-font: minor-latin;">A.<span style="font-family: 'Times New Roman'; font-size: 7pt; font-weight: normal; line-height: normal;">
</span></span></b><!--[endif]--><b><span lang="DE" style="font-family: "Calibri","sans-serif"; mso-ansi-language: DE; mso-ascii-theme-font: minor-latin; mso-bidi-theme-font: minor-latin; mso-hansi-theme-font: minor-latin;">Penawaran Agregat</span></b><span lang="DE" style="font-family: "Calibri","sans-serif"; mso-ansi-language: DE; mso-ascii-theme-font: minor-latin; mso-bidi-theme-font: minor-latin; mso-hansi-theme-font: minor-latin;"> <o:p></o:p></span></div>
<div style="line-height: 115%; text-align: justify;">
<span lang="DE" style="font-family: Wingdings; mso-ansi-language: DE; mso-ascii-font-family: Calibri; mso-ascii-theme-font: minor-latin; mso-bidi-font-family: Calibri; mso-bidi-theme-font: minor-latin; mso-char-type: symbol; mso-hansi-font-family: Calibri; mso-hansi-theme-font: minor-latin; mso-symbol-font-family: Wingdings;">è</span><span lang="DE" style="font-family: "Calibri","sans-serif"; mso-ansi-language: DE; mso-ascii-theme-font: minor-latin; mso-bidi-theme-font: minor-latin; mso-hansi-theme-font: minor-latin;"> Yaitu terdiri dari perkembangan teknologi, kualitas SDM, dan inovasi
material baru untuk produksi.<o:p></o:p></span></div>
<div style="line-height: 115%; margin-left: 14.2pt; mso-list: l1 level1 lfo2; text-align: justify; text-indent: -14.15pt;">
<!--[if !supportLists]--><span lang="EN-US" style="font-family: "Calibri","sans-serif"; mso-ansi-language: EN-US; mso-ascii-theme-font: minor-latin; mso-bidi-theme-font: minor-latin; mso-fareast-font-family: Calibri; mso-fareast-theme-font: minor-latin; mso-hansi-theme-font: minor-latin;">1.<span style="font-family: 'Times New Roman'; font-size: 7pt; line-height: normal;">
</span></span><!--[endif]--><span style="font-family: "Calibri","sans-serif"; mso-ascii-theme-font: minor-latin; mso-bidi-theme-font: minor-latin; mso-hansi-theme-font: minor-latin;">Perkembangan Teknolog</span><span lang="EN-US" style="font-family: "Calibri","sans-serif"; mso-ansi-language: EN-US; mso-ascii-theme-font: minor-latin; mso-bidi-theme-font: minor-latin; mso-hansi-theme-font: minor-latin;">i (<i>Technological Progress</i>)<o:p></o:p></span></div>
<div style="line-height: 115%; text-align: justify; text-indent: 14.2pt;">
<span style="font-family: "Calibri","sans-serif"; mso-ascii-theme-font: minor-latin; mso-bidi-theme-font: minor-latin; mso-fareast-font-family: Calibri; mso-fareast-theme-font: minor-latin; mso-hansi-theme-font: minor-latin;">Perubahan lingkungan kompetisi
pada tahun-tahun terakhir ini membuat fokus perkembangan teknologi dan besarnya
peranan pemerintah di masing-masing negara menjadi berlainan. Negara-negara
industri secara umum memfokuskan dan berlomba-lomba untuk mencapai batas-batas
inovasi mereka, dan mencoba untuk memperbaiki system inovasi nasional. Disisi
lain, negara-negara berkembang pada umumnya lebih fokus untuk mengadaptasikan
teknologi yang ada secara lebih efektif. Walaupun demikian,
perusahaan-perusahaan di sejumlah negara berkembang juga menjadi inovator,
terutama untuk ceruk-ceruk pasar yang masih memberikan potensi (<i>World
Investment Report, </i>1999: 196).</span><span lang="EN-US" style="font-family: "Calibri","sans-serif"; mso-ansi-language: EN-US; mso-ascii-theme-font: minor-latin; mso-bidi-theme-font: minor-latin; mso-fareast-font-family: Calibri; mso-fareast-theme-font: minor-latin; mso-hansi-theme-font: minor-latin;"><o:p></o:p></span></div>
<div style="line-height: 115%; margin-bottom: .0001pt; margin-bottom: 0cm; text-align: justify; text-indent: 14.2pt;">
<span style="font-family: "Calibri","sans-serif"; mso-ascii-theme-font: minor-latin; mso-bidi-theme-font: minor-latin; mso-fareast-font-family: Calibri; mso-fareast-theme-font: minor-latin; mso-hansi-theme-font: minor-latin;">Pengamatan
proses </span><span lang="EN-US" style="font-family: "Calibri","sans-serif"; mso-ansi-language: EN-US; mso-ascii-theme-font: minor-latin; mso-bidi-theme-font: minor-latin; mso-fareast-font-family: Calibri; mso-fareast-theme-font: minor-latin; mso-hansi-theme-font: minor-latin;">perubahan struktur industri</span><span style="font-family: "Calibri","sans-serif"; mso-ascii-theme-font: minor-latin; mso-bidi-theme-font: minor-latin; mso-fareast-font-family: Calibri; mso-fareast-theme-font: minor-latin; mso-hansi-theme-font: minor-latin;"> amat jelas tidak bisa mengabaikan arah perkembangan
teknologi. Dengan demikian</span><span lang="EN-US" style="font-family: "Calibri","sans-serif"; mso-ansi-language: EN-US; mso-ascii-theme-font: minor-latin; mso-bidi-theme-font: minor-latin; mso-fareast-font-family: Calibri; mso-fareast-theme-font: minor-latin; mso-hansi-theme-font: minor-latin;">,</span><span lang="EN-US" style="font-family: "Calibri","sans-serif"; mso-ascii-theme-font: minor-latin; mso-bidi-theme-font: minor-latin; mso-fareast-font-family: Calibri; mso-fareast-theme-font: minor-latin; mso-hansi-theme-font: minor-latin;"> </span><span style="font-family: "Calibri","sans-serif"; mso-ascii-theme-font: minor-latin; mso-bidi-theme-font: minor-latin; mso-fareast-font-family: Calibri; mso-fareast-theme-font: minor-latin; mso-hansi-theme-font: minor-latin;">teori-teori<i> </i>mengenai teknologi menjadi
sangat relevan kalau para peneliti mengenai<i> </i></span><span lang="EN-US" style="font-family: "Calibri","sans-serif"; mso-ansi-language: EN-US; mso-ascii-theme-font: minor-latin; mso-bidi-theme-font: minor-latin; mso-fareast-font-family: Calibri; mso-fareast-theme-font: minor-latin; mso-hansi-theme-font: minor-latin;">hal
tersebut untuk</span><span style="font-family: "Calibri","sans-serif"; mso-ascii-theme-font: minor-latin; mso-bidi-theme-font: minor-latin; mso-fareast-font-family: Calibri; mso-fareast-theme-font: minor-latin; mso-hansi-theme-font: minor-latin;">
memperoleh gambaran yang baik mengenai proses</span><span lang="EN-US" style="font-family: "Calibri","sans-serif"; mso-ansi-language: EN-US; mso-ascii-theme-font: minor-latin; mso-bidi-theme-font: minor-latin; mso-fareast-font-family: Calibri; mso-fareast-theme-font: minor-latin; mso-hansi-theme-font: minor-latin;">-</span><span style="font-family: "Calibri","sans-serif"; mso-ascii-theme-font: minor-latin; mso-bidi-theme-font: minor-latin; mso-fareast-font-family: Calibri; mso-fareast-theme-font: minor-latin; mso-hansi-theme-font: minor-latin;">proses<i> </i>yang berlangsung.
Ketertinggalan negara sedang berkembang<i> </i>dalam bidang ekonomi sebenarnya
dapat ditelusuri dari ketertinggalan di<i> </i>bidang teknologi ini. Sekarang
ini sedang sangat popular soal <i>knowledgebased economy </i>(KNE). Diskusi
mengenai KNE berkenaan dengan<i> </i>pengembangan perekonomian suatu negara
sudah barang tentu sangat berkaitan dengan persoalan-persoalan (hubungan)
antara teknologi dan ekonomi. Teori-teori yang dibahas di depan akan memiliki
relevansi yang tinggi dalam melihat persoalan tersebut, khususnya bagi negara
sedang berkembang.</span><span lang="EN-US" style="font-family: "Calibri","sans-serif"; mso-ansi-language: EN-US; mso-ascii-theme-font: minor-latin; mso-bidi-theme-font: minor-latin; mso-fareast-font-family: Calibri; mso-fareast-theme-font: minor-latin; mso-hansi-theme-font: minor-latin;"><o:p></o:p></span></div>
<div style="line-height: 115%; margin-bottom: .0001pt; margin: 0cm; text-align: justify;">
<br /></div>
<div style="line-height: 115%; margin-left: 14.2pt; mso-list: l1 level1 lfo2; text-align: justify; text-indent: -14.15pt;">
<!--[if !supportLists]--><span lang="EN-US" style="font-family: "Calibri","sans-serif"; mso-ansi-language: EN-US; mso-ascii-theme-font: minor-latin; mso-bidi-theme-font: minor-latin; mso-fareast-font-family: Calibri; mso-fareast-theme-font: minor-latin; mso-hansi-theme-font: minor-latin;">2.<span style="font-family: 'Times New Roman'; font-size: 7pt; line-height: normal;">
</span></span><!--[endif]--><span style="font-family: "Calibri","sans-serif"; mso-ascii-theme-font: minor-latin; mso-bidi-theme-font: minor-latin; mso-hansi-theme-font: minor-latin;">Kualitas </span><span lang="EN-US" style="font-family: "Calibri","sans-serif"; mso-ansi-language: EN-US; mso-ascii-theme-font: minor-latin; mso-bidi-theme-font: minor-latin; mso-hansi-theme-font: minor-latin;">Sumber Daya Manusia (</span><span style="font-family: "Calibri","sans-serif"; mso-ascii-theme-font: minor-latin; mso-bidi-theme-font: minor-latin; mso-hansi-theme-font: minor-latin;">SD</span><span lang="EN-US" style="font-family: "Calibri","sans-serif"; mso-ansi-language: EN-US; mso-ascii-theme-font: minor-latin; mso-bidi-theme-font: minor-latin; mso-hansi-theme-font: minor-latin;">M) dan Pengembangan Ilmu Pengetahuan & Teknologi (IPTEK)<o:p></o:p></span></div>
<div style="line-height: 115%; text-align: justify; text-indent: 14.2pt;">
<span style="font-family: "Calibri","sans-serif"; mso-ascii-theme-font: minor-latin; mso-bidi-theme-font: minor-latin; mso-hansi-theme-font: minor-latin;">Sumber Daya
Manusia (SDM) merupakan salah satu faktor kunci dalam reformasi ekonomi, yakni
bagaimana menciptakan SDM yang berkualitas dan memiliki keterampilan serta
berdaya saing tinggi dalam persaingan global yang selama ini kita abaikan.</span><span lang="EN-US" style="font-family: "Calibri","sans-serif"; mso-ansi-language: EN-US; mso-ascii-theme-font: minor-latin; mso-bidi-theme-font: minor-latin; mso-hansi-theme-font: minor-latin;"><o:p></o:p></span></div>
<div style="line-height: 115%; text-align: justify; text-indent: 14.2pt;">
<span style="font-family: "Calibri","sans-serif"; mso-ascii-theme-font: minor-latin; mso-bidi-theme-font: minor-latin; mso-hansi-theme-font: minor-latin;">Rendahnya SDM
Indonesia diakibatkan kurangnya penguasaan IPTEK, karena sikap
mental dan penguasaan IPTEK yang dapat menjadi subyek atau pelaku
pembangunan yang handal. Dalam kerangka globalisasi, penyiapan pendidikan perlu
juga disinergikan dengan tuntutan kompetisi. Oleh karena itu</span><span lang="EN-US" style="font-family: "Calibri","sans-serif"; mso-ansi-language: EN-US; mso-ascii-theme-font: minor-latin; mso-bidi-theme-font: minor-latin; mso-hansi-theme-font: minor-latin;">,</span><span style="font-family: "Calibri","sans-serif"; mso-ascii-theme-font: minor-latin; mso-bidi-theme-font: minor-latin; mso-hansi-theme-font: minor-latin;">
dimensi daya saing dalam SDM semakin menjadi faktor penting sehingga upaya
memacu kualitas SDM melalui pendidikan merupakan tuntutan yang harus
dikedepankan. Salah satu problem struktural yang dihadapi dalam dunia pendidikan
adalah bahwa pendidikan merupakan subordinasi dari pembangunan ekonomi. Pada
era sebelum reformasi pembangunan dengan pendekatan fisik begitu dominan. Hal
ini sejalan dengan kuatnya orientasi pertumbuhan ekonomi.</span><span lang="EN-US" style="font-family: "Calibri","sans-serif"; mso-ansi-language: EN-US; mso-ascii-theme-font: minor-latin; mso-bidi-theme-font: minor-latin; mso-hansi-theme-font: minor-latin;"><o:p></o:p></span></div>
<div style="line-height: 115%; margin-bottom: .0001pt; margin: 0cm; text-align: justify; text-indent: 14.2pt;">
<span style="font-family: "Calibri","sans-serif"; mso-ascii-theme-font: minor-latin; mso-bidi-theme-font: minor-latin; mso-hansi-theme-font: minor-latin;">Arah
pembangunan SDM di </span><span lang="EN-US" style="font-family: "Calibri","sans-serif"; mso-ansi-language: EN-US; mso-ascii-theme-font: minor-latin; mso-bidi-theme-font: minor-latin; mso-hansi-theme-font: minor-latin;">negara berkembang</span><span style="font-family: "Calibri","sans-serif"; mso-ascii-theme-font: minor-latin; mso-bidi-theme-font: minor-latin; mso-hansi-theme-font: minor-latin;"> ditujukan
pada pengembangan kualitas SDM secara komprehensif meliputi aspek kepribadian
dan sikap mental, penguasaan ilmu dan teknologi, serta profesionalisme dan
kompetensi yang ke semuanya dijiwai oleh nilai-nilai religius sesuai dengan
agamanya. Dengan kata lain, pengembangan SDM di </span><span lang="EN-US" style="font-family: "Calibri","sans-serif"; mso-ansi-language: EN-US; mso-ascii-theme-font: minor-latin; mso-bidi-theme-font: minor-latin; mso-hansi-theme-font: minor-latin;">negara-negara berkembang</span><span style="font-family: "Calibri","sans-serif"; mso-ascii-theme-font: minor-latin; mso-bidi-theme-font: minor-latin; mso-hansi-theme-font: minor-latin;"> meliputi
pengembangan kecerdasan akal (IQ), kecerdasan sosial (EQ) dan kecerdasan
spiritual (SQ).</span><span lang="EN-US" style="font-family: "Calibri","sans-serif"; mso-ansi-language: EN-US; mso-ascii-theme-font: minor-latin; mso-bidi-theme-font: minor-latin; mso-hansi-theme-font: minor-latin;"><o:p></o:p></span></div>
<div style="line-height: 115%; margin-bottom: .0001pt; margin: 0cm; text-align: justify;">
<br /></div>
<div style="line-height: 115%; margin-left: 14.2pt; mso-list: l1 level1 lfo2; text-align: justify; text-indent: -14.15pt;">
<!--[if !supportLists]--><span lang="EN-US" style="font-family: "Calibri","sans-serif"; mso-ansi-language: EN-US; mso-ascii-theme-font: minor-latin; mso-bidi-theme-font: minor-latin; mso-fareast-font-family: Calibri; mso-fareast-theme-font: minor-latin; mso-hansi-theme-font: minor-latin;">3.<span style="font-family: 'Times New Roman'; font-size: 7pt; line-height: normal;">
</span></span><!--[endif]--><span lang="EN-US" style="font-family: "Calibri","sans-serif"; mso-ansi-language: EN-US; mso-ascii-theme-font: minor-latin; mso-bidi-theme-font: minor-latin; mso-hansi-theme-font: minor-latin;">Spesialisasi dan </span><span style="font-family: "Calibri","sans-serif"; mso-ascii-theme-font: minor-latin; mso-bidi-theme-font: minor-latin; mso-hansi-theme-font: minor-latin;">Inovasi
Material Baru untuk Produksi</span><span lang="EN-US" style="font-family: "Calibri","sans-serif"; mso-ansi-language: EN-US; mso-ascii-theme-font: minor-latin; mso-bidi-theme-font: minor-latin; mso-hansi-theme-font: minor-latin;"><o:p></o:p></span></div>
<div style="line-height: 115%; text-align: justify; text-indent: 14.2pt;">
<span lang="DE" style="font-family: "Calibri","sans-serif"; mso-ansi-language: DE; mso-ascii-theme-font: minor-latin; mso-bidi-theme-font: minor-latin; mso-hansi-theme-font: minor-latin;">Definisi spesialisasi dalam ruang lingkup industri sama saja seperti
fundamentalnya, yaitu merupakan suatu bentuk pembagian tenga kerja di mana
individu atau perusahaan memusatkan usaha-usaha produktif mereka pada sebuah
kegiatan atau sejumlah kegiatan-kegiatan yang terbatas. Spesialisasi ini dapat
memusatkan diri pada pekerjaan yang sesuai dengan keahliannnya. Hal tersebut
semua terjadi dalam perubahan struktur industri di negara berkembang, di mana
tingkat spesialisasinya masih belum optimal dan efisien.<o:p></o:p></span></div>
<div style="line-height: 115%; text-align: justify; text-indent: 14.2pt;">
<span lang="DE" style="font-family: "Calibri","sans-serif"; mso-ansi-language: DE; mso-ascii-theme-font: minor-latin; mso-bidi-theme-font: minor-latin; mso-hansi-theme-font: minor-latin;">Keunggulan Inovasi:<o:p></o:p></span></div>
<div style="line-height: 115%; margin-left: 1.0cm; mso-list: l5 level1 lfo1; text-align: justify; text-indent: -14.15pt;">
<!--[if !supportLists]--><span lang="DE" style="font-family: Symbol; mso-ansi-language: DE; mso-bidi-font-family: Symbol; mso-fareast-font-family: Symbol;">·<span style="font-family: 'Times New Roman'; font-size: 7pt; line-height: normal;"> </span></span><!--[endif]--><span lang="DE" style="font-family: "Calibri","sans-serif"; mso-ansi-language: DE; mso-ascii-theme-font: minor-latin; mso-bidi-theme-font: minor-latin; mso-hansi-theme-font: minor-latin;">Proses produksi menjadi sederhana dan mudah diaplikasikan, sehingga
menciptakan proses produksi yang effisien dan
efektif.<o:p></o:p></span></div>
<div style="line-height: 115%; margin-left: 1.0cm; mso-list: l5 level1 lfo1; text-align: justify; text-indent: -14.15pt;">
<!--[if !supportLists]--><span lang="DE" style="font-family: Symbol; mso-ansi-language: DE; mso-bidi-font-family: Symbol; mso-fareast-font-family: Symbol;">·<span style="font-family: 'Times New Roman'; font-size: 7pt; line-height: normal;"> </span></span><!--[endif]--><span lang="DE" style="font-family: "Calibri","sans-serif"; mso-ansi-language: DE; mso-ascii-theme-font: minor-latin; mso-bidi-theme-font: minor-latin; mso-hansi-theme-font: minor-latin;">Alat dan mesin produksi dapat dibuat di dalam negeri.<o:p></o:p></span></div>
<div style="line-height: 115%; margin-left: 1.0cm; mso-list: l5 level1 lfo1; text-align: justify; text-indent: -14.15pt;">
<!--[if !supportLists]--><span style="font-family: Symbol; mso-bidi-font-family: Symbol; mso-fareast-font-family: Symbol;">·<span style="font-family: 'Times New Roman'; font-size: 7pt; line-height: normal;">
</span></span><!--[endif]--><span lang="DE" style="font-family: "Calibri","sans-serif"; mso-ansi-language: DE; mso-ascii-theme-font: minor-latin; mso-bidi-theme-font: minor-latin; mso-hansi-theme-font: minor-latin;">Meningkatkan nilai tambah lokal bagi petani,
pengusaha, dan pihak bersangkutan lainnya.</span><span style="font-family: "Calibri","sans-serif"; mso-ascii-theme-font: minor-latin; mso-bidi-theme-font: minor-latin; mso-hansi-theme-font: minor-latin;"><o:p></o:p></span></div>
<div style="line-height: 115%; text-align: justify;">
<br /></div>
<div style="line-height: 115%; margin-left: 14.2pt; mso-list: l1 level1 lfo2; text-align: justify; text-indent: -14.15pt;">
<!--[if !supportLists]--><span style="font-family: "Calibri","sans-serif"; mso-ascii-theme-font: minor-latin; mso-bidi-theme-font: minor-latin; mso-fareast-font-family: Calibri; mso-fareast-theme-font: minor-latin; mso-hansi-theme-font: minor-latin;">4.<span style="font-family: 'Times New Roman'; font-size: 7pt; line-height: normal;"> </span></span><!--[endif]--><span lang="EN-US" style="font-family: "Calibri","sans-serif"; mso-ansi-language: EN-US; mso-ascii-theme-font: minor-latin; mso-bidi-theme-font: minor-latin; mso-hansi-theme-font: minor-latin;">Keterbatasan <i>Support </i>dan Dana
dari Pemerintah</span><span style="font-family: "Calibri","sans-serif"; mso-ascii-theme-font: minor-latin; mso-bidi-theme-font: minor-latin; mso-hansi-theme-font: minor-latin;"><o:p></o:p></span></div>
<div class="MsoNormal" style="text-align: justify; text-indent: 14.2pt;">
<span style="font-size: 12.0pt; line-height: 115%; mso-bidi-font-size: 11.0pt;">Terbatasnya
dana pemerintah</span><span lang="EN-US" style="font-size: 12.0pt; line-height: 115%; mso-ansi-language: EN-US; mso-bidi-font-size: 11.0pt;"> di negara-negara berkembang</span><span style="font-size: 12.0pt; line-height: 115%; mso-bidi-font-size: 11.0pt;"> untuk
mengembangkan</span><span lang="EN-US" style="font-size: 12.0pt; line-height: 115%; mso-ansi-language: EN-US; mso-bidi-font-size: 11.0pt;"> dan memajukan</span><span style="font-size: 12.0pt; line-height: 115%; mso-bidi-font-size: 11.0pt;">
infrastruktur dalam bidang pengembangan teknologi</span><span lang="EN-US" style="font-size: 12.0pt; line-height: 115%; mso-ansi-language: EN-US; mso-bidi-font-size: 11.0pt;">, dana riset teknologi & penelitian dalam meningkatkan IPTEK dan
SDM, serta hal-hal yang bersifat fundamental lainnya.<o:p></o:p></span></div>
<div class="MsoNormal" style="text-align: justify; text-indent: 14.2pt;">
<span lang="EN-US" style="font-size: 12.0pt; line-height: 115%; mso-ansi-language: EN-US; mso-bidi-font-size: 11.0pt;">Seperti yang telah umum diketahui luas, kekayaan dari
suatu negara berkembang memang sangat tidak sebanding dengan negara maju, sehingga
wajar saja faktor penyebab yang satu ini menjadi suatu masalah dalam memajukan struktur
industrinya. Tapi di samping itu, tetap terdapat banyak cara untuk mencari solusi
alternatif terhadap masalah ini.<o:p></o:p></span></div>
<div style="line-height: 115%; text-align: justify;">
<br /></div>
<div style="line-height: 115%; margin-left: 14.2pt; mso-list: l4 level1 lfo3; text-align: justify; text-indent: -14.15pt;">
<!--[if !supportLists]--><b><span style="font-family: "Calibri","sans-serif"; mso-ascii-theme-font: minor-latin; mso-bidi-theme-font: minor-latin; mso-fareast-font-family: Calibri; mso-fareast-theme-font: minor-latin; mso-hansi-theme-font: minor-latin;">B.<span style="font-family: 'Times New Roman'; font-size: 7pt; font-weight: normal; line-height: normal;">
</span></span></b><!--[endif]--><b><span lang="DE" style="font-family: "Calibri","sans-serif"; mso-ansi-language: DE; mso-ascii-theme-font: minor-latin; mso-bidi-theme-font: minor-latin; mso-hansi-theme-font: minor-latin;">Permintaan Agregat</span></b><span lang="DE" style="font-family: "Calibri","sans-serif"; mso-ansi-language: DE; mso-ascii-theme-font: minor-latin; mso-bidi-theme-font: minor-latin; mso-hansi-theme-font: minor-latin;"> </span><span style="font-family: "Calibri","sans-serif"; mso-ascii-theme-font: minor-latin; mso-bidi-theme-font: minor-latin; mso-hansi-theme-font: minor-latin;"><o:p></o:p></span></div>
<div style="line-height: 115%; text-align: justify;">
<span lang="DE" style="font-family: Wingdings; mso-ansi-language: DE; mso-ascii-font-family: Calibri; mso-ascii-theme-font: minor-latin; mso-bidi-font-family: Calibri; mso-bidi-theme-font: minor-latin; mso-char-type: symbol; mso-hansi-font-family: Calibri; mso-hansi-theme-font: minor-latin; mso-symbol-font-family: Wingdings;">è</span><span lang="DE" style="font-family: "Calibri","sans-serif"; mso-ansi-language: DE; mso-ascii-theme-font: minor-latin; mso-bidi-theme-font: minor-latin; mso-hansi-theme-font: minor-latin;"> Ada dua jenis penyebab dari sisi permintaan agregat, yaitu peningkatan
pendapatan perkapita yang mengubah volume dan pola konsumsi.<o:p></o:p></span></div>
<div style="line-height: 115%; text-align: justify; text-indent: 14.2pt;">
<span lang="EN-US" style="font-family: "Calibri","sans-serif"; mso-ansi-language: EN-US; mso-ascii-theme-font: minor-latin; mso-bidi-theme-font: minor-latin; mso-hansi-theme-font: minor-latin;">Ketika pendapatan per kapita di suatu negara, khususnya negara-negara
berkembang, otomatis masyarakat negara bersangkutan akan meningkatkan tingkat
konsumsinya, sehingga secara agregat terjadi permintaan agregat.<o:p></o:p></span></div>
<div style="line-height: 115%; text-align: justify; text-indent: 14.2pt;">
<span lang="EN-US" style="font-family: "Calibri","sans-serif"; mso-ansi-language: EN-US; mso-ascii-theme-font: minor-latin; mso-bidi-theme-font: minor-latin; mso-hansi-theme-font: minor-latin;">Selanjutnya dampak yang ditimbulkan oleh faktor penyebab di atas
menyebabkan para produsen (yang merupakan aktor industri) meningkatkan
penawarannya yang otomatis mereka akan meningkatkan produksi. Yang pada
akhirnya, intensitas industri pun menjadi meningkat dan terjadilah perubahan
struktur industri ke arah yang lebih berkembang.<o:p></o:p></span></div>
<div style="line-height: 115%; text-align: justify;">
<br /></div>
<div style="line-height: 115%; text-align: justify;">
<b><u><span lang="EN-US" style="font-family: "Calibri","sans-serif"; font-size: 14.0pt; line-height: 115%; mso-ansi-language: EN-US; mso-ascii-theme-font: minor-latin; mso-bidi-font-size: 12.0pt; mso-bidi-theme-font: minor-latin; mso-hansi-theme-font: minor-latin;">Contoh Kasus di Indonesia</span></u></b><span lang="EN-US" style="font-family: "Calibri","sans-serif"; mso-ansi-language: EN-US; mso-ascii-theme-font: minor-latin; mso-bidi-theme-font: minor-latin; mso-hansi-theme-font: minor-latin;"><o:p></o:p></span></div>
<div class="MsoNormal" style="text-align: justify; text-indent: 14.2pt;">
<span lang="EN-US" style="font-size: 12.0pt; line-height: 115%; mso-ansi-language: EN-US; mso-bidi-font-family: Calibri; mso-bidi-font-size: 11.0pt; mso-bidi-theme-font: minor-latin;">Perubahan struktur industri </span><span style="font-size: 12.0pt; line-height: 115%; mso-bidi-font-family: Calibri; mso-bidi-font-size: 11.0pt; mso-bidi-theme-font: minor-latin;">di</span><span style="font-size: 12.0pt; line-height: 115%; mso-ansi-language: EN-US; mso-bidi-font-family: Calibri; mso-bidi-font-size: 11.0pt; mso-bidi-theme-font: minor-latin;"> </span><span style="font-size: 12.0pt; line-height: 115%; mso-bidi-font-family: Calibri; mso-bidi-font-size: 11.0pt; mso-bidi-theme-font: minor-latin;">Indonesia</span><span style="font-size: 12.0pt; line-height: 115%; mso-ansi-language: EN-US; mso-bidi-font-family: Calibri; mso-bidi-font-size: 11.0pt; mso-bidi-theme-font: minor-latin;"> </span><span style="font-size: 12.0pt; line-height: 115%; mso-bidi-font-family: Calibri; mso-bidi-font-size: 11.0pt; mso-bidi-theme-font: minor-latin;">semakin</span><span style="font-size: 12.0pt; line-height: 115%; mso-ansi-language: EN-US; mso-bidi-font-family: Calibri; mso-bidi-font-size: 11.0pt; mso-bidi-theme-font: minor-latin;"> </span><span style="font-size: 12.0pt; line-height: 115%; mso-bidi-font-family: Calibri; mso-bidi-font-size: 11.0pt; mso-bidi-theme-font: minor-latin;">menurun</span><span style="font-size: 12.0pt; line-height: 115%; mso-ansi-language: EN-US; mso-bidi-font-family: Calibri; mso-bidi-font-size: 11.0pt; mso-bidi-theme-font: minor-latin;"> </span><span style="font-size: 12.0pt; line-height: 115%; mso-bidi-font-family: Calibri; mso-bidi-font-size: 11.0pt; mso-bidi-theme-font: minor-latin;">semenjak</span><span style="font-size: 12.0pt; line-height: 115%; mso-ansi-language: EN-US; mso-bidi-font-family: Calibri; mso-bidi-font-size: 11.0pt; mso-bidi-theme-font: minor-latin;"> </span><span style="font-size: 12.0pt; line-height: 115%; mso-bidi-font-family: Calibri; mso-bidi-font-size: 11.0pt; mso-bidi-theme-font: minor-latin;">krisis</span><span style="font-size: 12.0pt; line-height: 115%; mso-ansi-language: EN-US; mso-bidi-font-family: Calibri; mso-bidi-font-size: 11.0pt; mso-bidi-theme-font: minor-latin;"> </span><span style="font-size: 12.0pt; line-height: 115%; mso-bidi-font-family: Calibri; mso-bidi-font-size: 11.0pt; mso-bidi-theme-font: minor-latin;">ekonomi tahun</span><span style="font-size: 12.0pt; line-height: 115%; mso-ansi-language: EN-US; mso-bidi-font-family: Calibri; mso-bidi-font-size: 11.0pt; mso-bidi-theme-font: minor-latin;"> </span><span style="font-size: 12.0pt; line-height: 115%; mso-bidi-font-family: Calibri; mso-bidi-font-size: 11.0pt; mso-bidi-theme-font: minor-latin;">1998.</span><span style="font-size: 12.0pt; line-height: 115%; mso-ansi-language: EN-US; mso-bidi-font-family: Calibri; mso-bidi-font-size: 11.0pt; mso-bidi-theme-font: minor-latin;"> </span><span style="font-size: 12.0pt; line-height: 115%; mso-bidi-font-family: Calibri; mso-bidi-font-size: 11.0pt; mso-bidi-theme-font: minor-latin;">Kemunduran</span><span style="font-size: 12.0pt; line-height: 115%; mso-ansi-language: EN-US; mso-bidi-font-family: Calibri; mso-bidi-font-size: 11.0pt; mso-bidi-theme-font: minor-latin;"> </span><span style="font-size: 12.0pt; line-height: 115%; mso-bidi-font-family: Calibri; mso-bidi-font-size: 11.0pt; mso-bidi-theme-font: minor-latin;">ini</span><span style="font-size: 12.0pt; line-height: 115%; mso-ansi-language: EN-US; mso-bidi-font-family: Calibri; mso-bidi-font-size: 11.0pt; mso-bidi-theme-font: minor-latin;"> </span><span style="font-size: 12.0pt; line-height: 115%; mso-bidi-font-family: Calibri; mso-bidi-font-size: 11.0pt; mso-bidi-theme-font: minor-latin;">bukanlah</span><span style="font-size: 12.0pt; line-height: 115%; mso-ansi-language: EN-US; mso-bidi-font-family: Calibri; mso-bidi-font-size: 11.0pt; mso-bidi-theme-font: minor-latin;"> </span><span style="font-size: 12.0pt; line-height: 115%; mso-bidi-font-family: Calibri; mso-bidi-font-size: 11.0pt; mso-bidi-theme-font: minor-latin;">berarti</span><span style="font-size: 12.0pt; line-height: 115%; mso-ansi-language: EN-US; mso-bidi-font-family: Calibri; mso-bidi-font-size: 11.0pt; mso-bidi-theme-font: minor-latin;"> </span><span style="font-size: 12.0pt; line-height: 115%; mso-bidi-font-family: Calibri; mso-bidi-font-size: 11.0pt; mso-bidi-theme-font: minor-latin;">Indonesia</span><span style="font-size: 12.0pt; line-height: 115%; mso-ansi-language: EN-US; mso-bidi-font-family: Calibri; mso-bidi-font-size: 11.0pt; mso-bidi-theme-font: minor-latin;"> </span><span style="font-size: 12.0pt; line-height: 115%; mso-bidi-font-family: Calibri; mso-bidi-font-size: 11.0pt; mso-bidi-theme-font: minor-latin;">tidak</span><span style="font-size: 12.0pt; line-height: 115%; mso-ansi-language: EN-US; mso-bidi-font-family: Calibri; mso-bidi-font-size: 11.0pt; mso-bidi-theme-font: minor-latin;"> </span><span style="font-size: 12.0pt; line-height: 115%; mso-bidi-font-family: Calibri; mso-bidi-font-size: 11.0pt; mso-bidi-theme-font: minor-latin;">memiliki</span><span style="font-size: 12.0pt; line-height: 115%; mso-ansi-language: EN-US; mso-bidi-font-family: Calibri; mso-bidi-font-size: 11.0pt; mso-bidi-theme-font: minor-latin;"> </span><span style="font-size: 12.0pt; line-height: 115%; mso-bidi-font-family: Calibri; mso-bidi-font-size: 11.0pt; mso-bidi-theme-font: minor-latin;">modal</span><span style="font-size: 12.0pt; line-height: 115%; mso-ansi-language: EN-US; mso-bidi-font-family: Calibri; mso-bidi-font-size: 11.0pt; mso-bidi-theme-font: minor-latin;"> </span><span style="font-size: 12.0pt; line-height: 115%; mso-bidi-font-family: Calibri; mso-bidi-font-size: 11.0pt; mso-bidi-theme-font: minor-latin;">untuk</span><span lang="EN-US" style="font-size: 12.0pt; line-height: 115%; mso-ansi-language: EN-US; mso-bidi-font-family: Calibri; mso-bidi-font-size: 11.0pt; mso-bidi-theme-font: minor-latin;"> m</span><span style="font-size: 12.0pt; line-height: 115%; mso-bidi-font-family: Calibri; mso-bidi-font-size: 11.0pt; mso-bidi-theme-font: minor-latin;">elakukan</span><span style="font-size: 12.0pt; line-height: 115%; mso-ansi-language: EN-US; mso-bidi-font-family: Calibri; mso-bidi-font-size: 11.0pt; mso-bidi-theme-font: minor-latin;"> </span><span style="font-size: 12.0pt; line-height: 115%; mso-bidi-font-family: Calibri; mso-bidi-font-size: 11.0pt; mso-bidi-theme-font: minor-latin;">investasi</span><span style="font-size: 12.0pt; line-height: 115%; mso-ansi-language: EN-US; mso-bidi-font-family: Calibri; mso-bidi-font-size: 11.0pt; mso-bidi-theme-font: minor-latin;"> </span><span style="font-size: 12.0pt; line-height: 115%; mso-bidi-font-family: Calibri; mso-bidi-font-size: 11.0pt; mso-bidi-theme-font: minor-latin;">pada</span><span style="font-size: 12.0pt; line-height: 115%; mso-ansi-language: EN-US; mso-bidi-font-family: Calibri; mso-bidi-font-size: 11.0pt; mso-bidi-theme-font: minor-latin;"> </span><span style="font-size: 12.0pt; line-height: 115%; mso-bidi-font-family: Calibri; mso-bidi-font-size: 11.0pt; mso-bidi-theme-font: minor-latin;">industri</span><span style="font-size: 12.0pt; line-height: 115%; mso-ansi-language: EN-US; mso-bidi-font-family: Calibri; mso-bidi-font-size: 11.0pt; mso-bidi-theme-font: minor-latin;"> </span><span style="font-size: 12.0pt; line-height: 115%; mso-bidi-font-family: Calibri; mso-bidi-font-size: 11.0pt; mso-bidi-theme-font: minor-latin;">dalam negeri, tetapi lebih kepada
penyerapan barang hasil produksi industri dalam negeri. Membuka pasar dalam
negeri adalah kunci penting bagi industri Indonesia untuk bisa bangkit lagi
karena saat ini pasar Indonesia dikuasai oleh produk produk asing.</span><span lang="EN-US" style="font-size: 12.0pt; line-height: 115%; mso-ansi-language: EN-US; mso-bidi-font-family: Calibri; mso-bidi-font-size: 11.0pt; mso-bidi-theme-font: minor-latin;"><o:p></o:p></span></div>
<div class="MsoNormal" style="text-align: justify; text-indent: 14.2pt;">
<span lang="EN-US" style="font-size: 12.0pt; line-height: 115%; mso-ansi-language: EN-US; mso-bidi-font-family: Calibri; mso-bidi-font-size: 11.0pt; mso-bidi-theme-font: minor-latin;">Kalau dilihat dari sudut pandang </span><span lang="DE" style="font-size: 12.0pt; line-height: 115%; mso-ansi-language: DE; mso-bidi-font-family: Calibri; mso-bidi-font-size: 11.0pt; mso-bidi-theme-font: minor-latin;">faktor yang dapat mendorong
perubahan struktur industri dan penyebab-penyebabnya, jelas sekali bahwa posisi
Indonesia negeri tercinta kita ini dalam bentuk implementasi dan pelaksanaanya sangat
belum maksimal, hampir di semua poin-poin tersebut perlu untuk diperhatikan oleh pemerintah Indonesia, juga kesadaran dan bantuan
dari masyarakatnya itu sendiri.</span><b><u><span lang="EN-US" style="font-size: 14.0pt; line-height: 115%; mso-ansi-language: EN-US; mso-bidi-font-family: Calibri; mso-bidi-font-size: 11.0pt; mso-bidi-theme-font: minor-latin;"><o:p></o:p></span></u></b></div>
<div class="MsoNormal" style="text-align: justify; text-indent: 14.2pt;">
<span style="font-size: 12.0pt; line-height: 115%; mso-bidi-font-size: 11.0pt;">Di
Indonesia perubahan struktur ekonomi yang cukup pesat dengan diversifikasi
industri sejak tahun 1983</span><span lang="EN-US" style="font-size: 14.0pt; line-height: 115%; mso-ansi-language: EN-US; mso-bidi-font-family: Calibri; mso-bidi-font-size: 11.0pt; mso-bidi-theme-font: minor-latin;">. </span><span style="font-size: 12.0pt; line-height: 115%; mso-bidi-font-family: Calibri; mso-bidi-font-size: 11.0pt; mso-bidi-theme-font: minor-latin;">Adapun faktor-faktor pembangkit</span><span style="font-size: 12.0pt; line-height: 115%; mso-ansi-language: EN-US; mso-bidi-font-family: Calibri; mso-bidi-font-size: 11.0pt; mso-bidi-theme-font: minor-latin;"> <span lang="EN-US">struktur</span></span><span style="font-size: 12.0pt; line-height: 115%; mso-bidi-font-family: Calibri; mso-bidi-font-size: 11.0pt; mso-bidi-theme-font: minor-latin;"> industri di Indonesia</span><span style="font-size: 12.0pt; line-height: 115%; mso-ansi-language: EN-US; mso-bidi-font-family: Calibri; mso-bidi-font-size: 11.0pt; mso-bidi-theme-font: minor-latin;"> <span lang="EN-US">saat itu</span></span><span style="font-size: 12.0pt; line-height: 115%; mso-bidi-font-family: Calibri; mso-bidi-font-size: 11.0pt; mso-bidi-theme-font: minor-latin;">,
antara lain:</span><b><u><span lang="EN-US" style="font-size: 14.0pt; line-height: 115%; mso-ansi-language: EN-US; mso-bidi-font-family: Calibri; mso-bidi-font-size: 11.0pt; mso-bidi-theme-font: minor-latin;"><o:p></o:p></span></u></b></div>
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</span></span><!--[endif]--><span style="font-size: 12.0pt; line-height: 115%; mso-bidi-font-family: Calibri; mso-bidi-font-size: 11.0pt; mso-bidi-theme-font: minor-latin;">Struktur
organisasi<o:p></o:p></span></div>
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<span style="font-size: 12.0pt; line-height: 115%; mso-bidi-font-family: Calibri; mso-bidi-font-size: 11.0pt; mso-bidi-theme-font: minor-latin;">Dilakukan
inovasi dalam jaringan institusi pemerintah dan swasta yang
melakukan impor.</span><span style="font-size: 12.0pt; line-height: 115%; mso-ansi-language: EN-US; mso-bidi-font-family: Calibri; mso-bidi-font-size: 11.0pt; mso-bidi-theme-font: minor-latin;"> </span><span style="font-size: 12.0pt; line-height: 115%; mso-bidi-font-family: Calibri; mso-bidi-font-size: 11.0pt; mso-bidi-theme-font: minor-latin;">Sebagai
pihak yang membawa,</span><span style="font-size: 12.0pt; line-height: 115%; mso-ansi-language: EN-US; mso-bidi-font-family: Calibri; mso-bidi-font-size: 11.0pt; mso-bidi-theme-font: minor-latin;"> </span><span style="font-size: 12.0pt; line-height: 115%; mso-bidi-font-family: Calibri; mso-bidi-font-size: 11.0pt; mso-bidi-theme-font: minor-latin;">mengubah,
mengembangkan dan menyebarluaskan</span><span style="font-size: 12.0pt; line-height: 115%; mso-ansi-language: EN-US; mso-bidi-font-family: Calibri; mso-bidi-font-size: 11.0pt; mso-bidi-theme-font: minor-latin;"> </span><span style="font-size: 12.0pt; line-height: 115%; mso-bidi-font-family: Calibri; mso-bidi-font-size: 11.0pt; mso-bidi-theme-font: minor-latin;">teknologi.</span><span lang="EN-US" style="font-size: 12.0pt; line-height: 115%; mso-ansi-language: EN-US; mso-bidi-font-family: Calibri; mso-bidi-font-size: 11.0pt; mso-bidi-theme-font: minor-latin;"><o:p></o:p></span></div>
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<br /></div>
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<!--[if !supportLists]--><span style="font-family: Symbol; font-size: 12.0pt; line-height: 115%; mso-bidi-font-family: Symbol; mso-bidi-font-size: 11.0pt; mso-fareast-font-family: Symbol;">·<span style="font-family: 'Times New Roman'; font-size: 7pt; line-height: normal;">
</span></span><!--[endif]--><span style="font-size: 12.0pt; line-height: 115%; mso-bidi-font-family: Calibri; mso-bidi-font-size: 11.0pt; mso-bidi-theme-font: minor-latin;">Ideologi<o:p></o:p></span></div>
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<span style="font-size: 12.0pt; line-height: 115%; mso-bidi-font-family: Calibri; mso-bidi-font-size: 11.0pt; mso-bidi-theme-font: minor-latin;">Perlu
sikap dalam menentukan pilihan untuk mengembangkan suatu teknologi apakah
menganut <i>tec</i></span><i><span lang="EN-US" style="font-size: 12.0pt; line-height: 115%; mso-ansi-language: EN-US; mso-bidi-font-family: Calibri; mso-bidi-font-size: 11.0pt; mso-bidi-theme-font: minor-latin;">h</span></i><i><span style="font-size: 12.0pt; line-height: 115%; mso-bidi-font-family: Calibri; mso-bidi-font-size: 11.0pt; mso-bidi-theme-font: minor-latin;">no-nasionalism</span></i><span style="font-size: 12.0pt; line-height: 115%; mso-bidi-font-family: Calibri; mso-bidi-font-size: 11.0pt; mso-bidi-theme-font: minor-latin;">,<i>techno-globalism</i>,
atau <i>techno-hybrids</i>.</span><span lang="EN-US" style="font-size: 12.0pt; line-height: 115%; mso-ansi-language: EN-US; mso-bidi-font-family: Calibri; mso-bidi-font-size: 11.0pt; mso-bidi-theme-font: minor-latin;"><o:p></o:p></span></div>
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<br /></div>
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<!--[if !supportLists]--><span style="font-family: Symbol; font-size: 12.0pt; line-height: 115%; mso-bidi-font-family: Symbol; mso-bidi-font-size: 11.0pt; mso-fareast-font-family: Symbol;">·<span style="font-family: 'Times New Roman'; font-size: 7pt; line-height: normal;">
</span></span><!--[endif]--><span style="font-size: 12.0pt; line-height: 115%; mso-bidi-font-family: Calibri; mso-bidi-font-size: 11.0pt; mso-bidi-theme-font: minor-latin;">Kepemimpinan<o:p></o:p></span></div>
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<span style="font-size: 12.0pt; line-height: 115%; mso-bidi-font-family: Calibri; mso-bidi-font-size: 11.0pt; mso-bidi-theme-font: minor-latin;">Pemimpin
dan elit politik Indonesia harus tegas dan cermat dalam mengambil keputusan.
Hal ini dimaksudkan untuk mengembalikan kepercayaan pasar dalam negeri maupun
luar negeri.<o:p></o:p></span></div>
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<br /></div>
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<b><u><span style="font-family: "Calibri","sans-serif"; font-size: 14.0pt; line-height: 115%; mso-ascii-theme-font: minor-latin; mso-bidi-font-size: 12.0pt; mso-bidi-theme-font: minor-latin; mso-hansi-theme-font: minor-latin;">Kesimpulan</span></u></b><b><u><span lang="EN-US" style="font-family: "Calibri","sans-serif"; font-size: 14.0pt; line-height: 115%; mso-ansi-language: EN-US; mso-ascii-theme-font: minor-latin; mso-bidi-font-size: 12.0pt; mso-bidi-theme-font: minor-latin; mso-hansi-theme-font: minor-latin;"><o:p></o:p></span></u></b></div>
<div style="line-height: 115%; margin-left: .05pt; text-align: justify; text-indent: 14.15pt;">
<span lang="EN-US" style="font-family: "Calibri","sans-serif"; mso-ansi-language: EN-US; mso-ascii-theme-font: minor-latin; mso-bidi-theme-font: minor-latin; mso-hansi-theme-font: minor-latin;">Jadi, yang paling penting dalam melakukan perubahan
positif terhadap struktur industri, negara-negara berkembang harus berfokus
kepada hal-hal fundamentalnya, yaitu perkembangan teknologi, </span><span style="font-family: "Calibri","sans-serif"; mso-ascii-theme-font: minor-latin; mso-bidi-theme-font: minor-latin; mso-hansi-theme-font: minor-latin;">kualitas </span><span lang="EN-US" style="font-family: "Calibri","sans-serif"; mso-ansi-language: EN-US; mso-ascii-theme-font: minor-latin; mso-bidi-theme-font: minor-latin; mso-hansi-theme-font: minor-latin;">sumber daya manusia (</span><span style="font-family: "Calibri","sans-serif"; mso-ascii-theme-font: minor-latin; mso-bidi-theme-font: minor-latin; mso-hansi-theme-font: minor-latin;">SD</span><span lang="EN-US" style="font-family: "Calibri","sans-serif"; mso-ansi-language: EN-US; mso-ascii-theme-font: minor-latin; mso-bidi-theme-font: minor-latin; mso-hansi-theme-font: minor-latin;">M) dan pengembangan ilmu pengetahuan &
teknologi (IPTEK), spesialisasi serta inovasi material baru untuk produksi, dan
keterbatasan dana dari pemerintah di negara berkembang bersangkutan. Jika
implementasi dari keempat hal penting itu belum juga maksimal, maka akan sangat
lama suatu negara berkembang akan menjadi maju, malah bisasaja semakin jauh
tertinggal.</span><b><u><span lang="EN-US" style="font-family: "Calibri","sans-serif"; font-size: 14.0pt; line-height: 115%; mso-ansi-language: EN-US; mso-ascii-theme-font: minor-latin; mso-bidi-font-size: 12.0pt; mso-bidi-theme-font: minor-latin; mso-hansi-theme-font: minor-latin;"><o:p></o:p></span></u></b></div>
<div style="line-height: 115%; margin-left: .05pt; text-align: justify; text-indent: 14.15pt;">
<span style="font-family: "Calibri","sans-serif"; mso-ascii-theme-font: minor-latin; mso-bidi-theme-font: minor-latin; mso-hansi-theme-font: minor-latin;">Bahwa
kegagalan berubahnya struktur industri dan industrialisasi di negara-negara
berkembang lebih merupakan problem struktural karena struktur internasional
yang berupa perekonomian kapitalis serta sistem perdagangan internasional yang
hanya mengonsentrasikan industri di tangan negara-negara maju hanya akan
membuat negara-negara berkembang tergantung terhadap negara maju sementara
negara-negara maju menikmati </span></div>
<div style="line-height: 115%; margin-left: .05pt; text-align: justify; text-indent: 14.15pt;">
<b style="line-height: 115%; text-indent: 14.15pt;"><u><span lang="EN-US" style="font-family: "Calibri","sans-serif"; font-size: 14.0pt; line-height: 115%; mso-ansi-language: EN-US; mso-ascii-theme-font: minor-latin; mso-bidi-font-size: 12.0pt; mso-bidi-theme-font: minor-latin; mso-hansi-theme-font: minor-latin;"><br /></span></u></b></div>
<div style="line-height: 115%; margin-left: .05pt; text-align: justify; text-indent: 14.15pt;">
<b style="line-height: 115%; text-indent: 14.15pt;"><u><span lang="EN-US" style="font-family: "Calibri","sans-serif"; font-size: 14.0pt; line-height: 115%; mso-ansi-language: EN-US; mso-ascii-theme-font: minor-latin; mso-bidi-font-size: 12.0pt; mso-bidi-theme-font: minor-latin; mso-hansi-theme-font: minor-latin;">Daftar Pustaka</span></u></b></div>
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<span style="font-family: Calibri, sans-serif; line-height: 115%; text-indent: 14.15pt;"><br /></span></div>
<div style="line-height: 115%; margin-left: .05pt; text-align: justify; text-indent: 14.15pt;">
<span style="font-family: Calibri, sans-serif; line-height: 115%; text-indent: 14.15pt;">Artikel Universitas Gunadarma.</span></div>
<div style="line-height: 115%; margin-left: .05pt; text-align: justify; text-indent: 14.15pt;">
</div>
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<span style="font-size: 12.0pt; line-height: 115%; mso-bidi-font-family: Calibri; mso-bidi-theme-font: minor-latin;">Balaam, David N & Veseth, Michael.
2001. <i>Introduction to International
Political Economy Second Edition</i>. New Jersey: Prentice Hall.<o:p></o:p></span></div>
<div class="MsoNormal" style="margin-left: 1cm; text-indent: -1cm;">
<span style="font-size: 12.0pt; line-height: 115%; mso-bidi-font-family: Calibri; mso-bidi-theme-font: minor-latin;">Ikbar, Yanuar, Drs. M.A. 2006. <i>Ekonomi Politik Internasional 1 Konsep dan Teori</i>.
Bandung: PT Refika Aditama.</span></div>
<div class="MsoNormal" style="margin-left: 1cm; text-indent: -1cm;">
<span style="font-size: 12pt; line-height: 115%; text-indent: 14.15pt;">Jurnal
Universitas Islam Indonesia, Yogyakarta.</span></div>
<div class="MsoNormal" style="margin-left: 1cm; text-indent: -1cm;">
<span style="font-size: 12pt; line-height: 115%; text-indent: 14.15pt;">Kompas.com
- Rubrik Kompasiana.</span></div>
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<span style="font-size: 12.0pt; line-height: 115%; mso-bidi-font-family: Calibri; mso-bidi-theme-font: minor-latin;">Short, J. R. 1993. <i>An Introduction to Political Geography</i>.
London: Routledge.<o:p></o:p></span></div>
<div class="MsoNormal" style="margin-left: 1cm; text-indent: -1cm;">
<span style="font-size: 12.0pt; line-height: 115%; mso-bidi-font-family: Calibri; mso-bidi-theme-font: minor-latin;">Wallerstein, I. <i>The inter-state structure of the modern world-system</i>. Dalam Booth,
Ken. <i>International Theory : Positivism
and Beyond</i>.</span><span lang="EN-US" style="font-size: 12.0pt; line-height: 115%; mso-ansi-language: EN-US; mso-bidi-font-family: Calibri; mso-bidi-theme-font: minor-latin;"><o:p></o:p></span></div>
<div class="MsoNormal" style="margin-left: 1cm; text-indent: -1cm;">
<span lang="EN-US" style="font-size: 12.0pt; line-height: 115%; mso-ansi-language: EN-US; mso-bidi-font-family: Calibri; mso-bidi-theme-font: minor-latin;">Wikipedia
Enskilopedia Bebas.<o:p></o:p></span></div>
<br />Teuku Bahran Basyiranhttp://www.blogger.com/profile/10525417589204464156noreply@blogger.com2tag:blogger.com,1999:blog-3600626824018511994.post-64490044300281622012-12-03T17:05:00.002+01:002012-12-03T17:09:50.075+01:00Menghina Rakyat (Indonesia)<br />
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<b>Oleh Sri Palupi</b></div>
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<strong><br /></strong></div>
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Terhadap tuduhan Ketua Mahkamah Konstitusi Mahfud MD terkait mafia<a href="http://nasional.kompas.com/read/2012/11/09/21083547/Mahfud.Mafia.Narkoba.Gentayangan.di.Penegak.Hukum?utm_source=WP&utm_medium=Ktpidx&utm_campaign=Grasi%20Terpidana%20Narkoba" style="color: #1170a0; text-decoration: initial;">narkoba yang merambah Istana</a>, Menteri Sekretaris Negara Sudi Silalahi menegaskan, <a href="http://nasional.kompas.com/read/2012/11/09/22581657/Mafia.Narkoba.Disebut.Masuk.Istana.RI.1..Sudi.Terhina" style="color: #1170a0; text-decoration: initial;">pihak Istana sangat keberatan dan merasa terhina.</a></div>
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Rasa terhina yang dipersoalkan Sudi Silalahi ini membuat saya berpikir, pihak Istana benar-benar keterlaluan. Mereka hanya peduli pada citranya sendiri.</div>
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Ketika rakyat direndahkan, dilecehkan, dijual murah, <a href="http://lipsus.kompas.com/topikpilihanlist/2054/1/Malaysia.Tembak.WNI.di.Perak" style="color: #1170a0; text-decoration: initial;">ditembaki</a>, diculik, dan <a href="http://lipsus.kompas.com/topikpilihanlist/1785/Organ.Tubuh.TKI.Hilang." style="color: #1170a0; text-decoration: initial;">diambil organ tubuhnya</a>, serta <a href="http://lipsus.kompas.com/topikpilihanlist/2207/1/tki.diperkosa.polisi.malaysia" style="color: #1170a0; text-decoration: initial;">diperkosa berulang kali </a>oleh pihak-pihak di luar negeri, pihak Istana tidak merasa terhina. Sampai sekarang mereka tetap bungkam.</div>
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Rupanya derita dan penghinaan rakyat oleh pihak-pihak di negara lain bukan prioritas Istana. Berulang kali pihak Istana menegaskan bahwa presiden tidak harus turun tangan untuk semua persoalan. Alasannya, sudah ada menteri yang mengurusi. Sementara itu, saya mencatat, presiden lebih banyak turun tangan untuk hal-hal yang menyangkut pujian, penghargaan, seremoni, dan berbagai urusan yang mendukung pencitraan Istana.</div>
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Kalaupun presiden turun tangan atas persoalan rakyat, itu terjadi karena tekanan massa. Jangankan merasa terhina terhadap penghinaan yang diderita rakyat, pihak Istana bahkan secara sistematis menghina rakyat dengan berbagai kebijakan dan kebungkamannya.</div>
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<strong><br /></strong></div>
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<strong></strong></div>
<a name='more'></a><strong>Tenaga kerja Indonesia</strong><br />
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Masyarakat marah dengan berbagai kasus penganiayaan, penembakan brutal, dan pemerkosaan yang terus mendera tenaga kerja Indonesia (TKI). Namun, pihak Istana tetap bungkam. Sudah lama rakyat dijual murah bahkan diobral. Kita bisa temukan <a href="http://nasional.kompas.com/read/2012/11/06/09314788" style="color: #1170a0; text-decoration: initial;">iklan jual murah TKI di koran-koran Singapura</a>. TKI yang dikembalikan majikan kepada agen, dijual dan dipajang di pusat belanja. Bahkan, di kawasan Geylang, Singapura, para gadis remaja Indonesia dijual di pinggir jalan sebagai pekerja seks.</div>
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Terasa kesiangan ketika pemerintah baru bereaksi setelah iklan ”<a href="http://nasional.kompas.com/read/2012/10/30/14154678/Agen.Pengiklan.TKI.On.Sale.Harus.Ditindak" style="color: #1170a0; text-decoration: initial;">TKI on sale</a>” diangkat Migrant Care. Terhadap jual murah TKI, pihak Istana juga bungkam. Mereka sibuk dengan pesta pemberian gelar kesatria bagi sang presiden.</div>
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TKI diakui sebagai penyumbang devisa dan pemberi solusi atas masalah pengangguran. Balasannya bukan subsidi, kemudahan, dan perlindungan optimal yang diterima TKI, melainkan tambahan masalah. Bibir pemerintah mengecam iklan ”TKI on sale”, tetapi pada saat yang sama tangannya jual murah TKI lewat perusahaan jasa TKI.</div>
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Betapa tidak. Badan Nasional Penempatan dan Perlindungan TKI (BNP2TKI) mengeluarkan aturan tentang <a href="http://regional.kompasiana.com/2011/05/29/keresahan-tki-adanya-pungutan-liar-pembuatan-ktkln/" style="color: #1170a0; text-decoration: initial;">kartu tanda kerja luar negeri (KTKLN)</a> yang wajib dimiliki TKI. Pencetakan kartu dibiayai dari APBN. Anehnya, untuk mendapatkan KTKLN, TKI dipaksa menggunakan jasa komersial PJTKI yang mewajibkan TKI membayar sedikitnya Rp 2 juta.</div>
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Kalau tidak, mereka tidak akan mendapatkan KTKLN dan tidak bisa berangkat sebab ada surat edaran BNP2TKI kepada perusahaan maskapai internasional untuk mencekal TKI yang tidak ber-KTKLN.</div>
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Akibatnya, banyak calon TKI yang bekerja dengan kontrak mandiri tanpa melalui PJTKI digagalkan keberangkatannya oleh pihak maskapai penerbangan. TKI dirugikan atas tiket pesawat yang dibatalkan dan kehilangan kesempatan kerja dengan gaji jauh lebih tinggi dibandingkan bila bekerja melalui PJTKI.</div>
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Sekadar contoh, Triyawati, calon TKI mandiri ke Singapura. Penerbangannya digagalkan AirAsia. Faridah Aini, calon TKI mandiri ke Dubai, penerbangannya digagalkan Garuda Indonesia. Nasib yang sama dialami Feri dan Nana, TKI Hongkong yang lagi cuti.</div>
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<strong><br /></strong>
<strong>Masyarakat adat</strong></div>
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Penghinaan tak hanya diderita TKI. Petani dan masyarakat adat tak kurang menderita. Di Papua, misalnya, tanah rakyat yang diambil untuk perkebunan sawit hanya diganti rugi 0,65 dollar AS per hektar. Kekayaan Papua disedot, sementara hak-hak dasar rakyat Papua, seperti pendidikan dan kesehatan, ditelantarkan. Daerah terkaya, tetapi masyarakatnya paling miskin.</div>
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Rakyat dibodohi dan dipermalukan. Sekadar contoh, seorang warga masyarakat adat asal Katingan, Kalimantan Tengah, 5 hektar tanahnya dirampas perusahaan sawit dan dipaksa menerima ganti rugi Rp 1,5 juta.</div>
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Merasa diperlakukan tak adil, ia mengadu kepada polisi dan pemerintah. Tidak ada respons, ia nekat mendatangi pihak perusahaan sawit. Dengan sinis perusahaan memintanya membawa surat kelakuan baik dari kepolisian dan surat keterangan sehat dari rumah sakit. Artinya, mempertanyakan ketidakadilan identik dengan kejahatan dan ketidakwarasan.</div>
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Dengan meningkatnya investasi di sektor perkebunan dan pertambangan, penghinaan dan kekerasan terhadap petani dan masyarakat adat atas nama otoritas negara semakin keterlaluan.</div>
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Bayangkan, Freeport yang telah menghancurkan bumi dan rakyat Papua masih juga diberi izin dan difasilitasi untuk mengeksploitasi Kalteng. Anda tidak akan temukan nama Freeport di sana sebab untuk mengelabui rakyat, Freeport sembunyikan diri dengan baju perusahaan lokal.</div>
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Rakyat tak diakui eksistensinya. Hutan dan lahan diberikan kepada korporasi seolah-olah wilayah itu tak berpenghuni. Di Kalimantan Timur, misalnya, Jaringan Advokasi Tambang (Jatam) mencatat luas konsesi untuk korporasi pertambangan, sawit, dan lainnya mencapai 21,7 juta hektar. Sementara itu, luas Kalimantan Timur sendiri hanya 19,88 juta hektar. Di Kalimantan Selatan dan Kalteng kondisinya tak jauh beda.</div>
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Penghinaan sistematis terhadap rakyat terlihat dari data Badan Pertanahan Nasional (BPN) pada 2010. Tak kurang dari 56 persen aset nasional yang mayoritas berupa tanah dikuasai hanya oleh 0,2 persen penduduk.</div>
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Pemerintah telah memberikan sedikitnya 42 juta hektar hutan kepada perusahaan HPH, HTI, dan perkebunan. Sementara itu, Jatam mencatat 35 persen daratan Indonesia dikuasai 1.194 pemegang kuasa pertambangan, 341 kontrak karya pertambangan, dan 257 kontrak pertambangan batubara.</div>
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Sementara itu, lahan yang dimiliki petani kian menyempit. Data BPS menunjukkan bahwa pada periode 1993-2003, jumlah petani gurem meningkat dari 10,8 juta menjadi 13,7 juta orang. Selama 2011 jumlah petani berkurang 3,1 juta.</div>
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Penghinaan rakyat secara terang-terangan dilakukan Menteri Kehutanan Zulkifli Hasan. Ia menyatakan lahan kritis yang luasnya 20.000 hektar akan diberikan kepada rakyat untuk dikelola dan dipinjamkan selama 60 tahun.</div>
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Keterlaluan, hutan dan tanah produktif diserahkan kepada korporasi dan setelah kritis baru diberikan kepada rakyat. Keuntungan dinikmati korporasi, sedangkan limbah, sampah, dan bencananya dibebankan kepada rakyat.</div>
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Akhir kata, boleh saja pihak Istana diguyur penghargaan dan dipuja-puji setinggi langit oleh pihak asing, tetapi apalah artinya itu bagi Indonesia kalau rakyat dan bangsanya terus dihina dan tak ada harganya.</div>
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<br /></div>
<div style="background-color: white; color: #333333; font-family: arial; font-size: 14px; line-height: 20px;">
<b>*Sri Palupi, <em>Ketua Institute for Ecosoc Rights</em></b></div>
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<em><br /></em></div>
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<em><br /></em></div>
<div style="background-color: white; color: #333333; font-family: arial; line-height: 20px;">
<b><u>Sumber:</u> <span style="background-color: transparent;">KOMPAS.com</span></b></div>
Teuku Bahran Basyiranhttp://www.blogger.com/profile/10525417589204464156noreply@blogger.com0tag:blogger.com,1999:blog-3600626824018511994.post-24310656931862336512012-08-22T19:05:00.000+02:002018-06-26T16:48:14.665+02:00Pemikiran & Konsep Ekonomi Neo-Keynesian dan New-Keynesian<!-- Global site tag (gtag.js) - Google Analytics -->
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<i style="font-size: 14pt; line-height: 21.111112594604492px; text-align: justify;">Oleh: T. Bahran Basyiran</i>
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<b><span lang="EN-US" style="font-size: 14.0pt; line-height: 115%; mso-ansi-language: EN-US; mso-bidi-font-size: 11.0pt;"><u><br /></u></span></b></div>
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<b><span lang="EN-US" style="font-size: 14.0pt; line-height: 115%; mso-ansi-language: EN-US; mso-bidi-font-size: 11.0pt;"><u>Neo-Keynesian</u><o:p></o:p></span></b></div>
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<span lang="EN-US" style="font-size: 12.0pt; line-height: 115%; mso-ansi-language: EN-US; mso-bidi-font-size: 11.0pt;">Pandangan mereka disebut Keynesian kerena teori mereka
merupakan determinasi pemikiran Keynes dan disebut Neo kerena pemikiran Keynes
tersebut diperbaharui berdasarkan penelitian empiris yang lebih baru. Neo-Keynes
merupakan penerus ajaran Keynes yang banyak berjasa dalam mengembangkan
teori-teori yang berhubungan dengan usaha menjaga stabilitas perekonomian.
Teori-teori tersebut menjelaskan tentang fluktuasi ekonomi (<i>business cycle</i>) dan teori-teori yang
berhubungan dengan pertumbuhan dan pendapatan. <o:p></o:p></span></div>
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<b><span lang="EN-US" style="font-size: 12.0pt; line-height: 115%; mso-ansi-language: EN-US; mso-bidi-font-size: 11.0pt;">Fluktuasi Ekonomi (<i>Business cycle</i>)<o:p></o:p></span></b></div>
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<span lang="EN-US" style="font-size: 12.0pt; line-height: 115%; mso-ansi-language: EN-US; mso-bidi-font-size: 11.0pt;">Pada masa sebelumnya, masalah fluktuasi ekonomi ini
telah dibicarakan, namun pembahasannya hanya sepintas dikarenakan sudah begitu
melekatnnya kepercayaan orang terhadap pemikiran klasik, yang mengatakan bahwa
perekonomian akan selalu menuju keseimbangan dan tidak akan terjadi guncangan
dalam perekonomian.<o:p></o:p></span></div>
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<span lang="EN-US" style="font-size: 12.0pt; line-height: 115%; mso-ansi-language: EN-US; mso-bidi-font-size: 11.0pt;">Pembahasan tentang fluktuasi ekonomi ini mendapatkan
perhatian yang lebih serius pada era sesudah Keynes (Neo-Keynes). Mereka
membahas teori fluktuasi ekonomi secara mendalam karena mereka memerlukan teori-teori
yang mampu menjelaskan apa yang menyebabkan perekonomian tidak stabil dan yang
lebuh penting lagi adalah apa tindakan dan kebijakan yang dapat dilakukan untuk
mencegah gerak perekonomian yang berfluktuasi tersebut agar menjadi lebih
stabil.<o:p></o:p></span></div>
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<span lang="EN-US" style="font-size: 12.0pt; line-height: 115%; mso-ansi-language: EN-US; mso-bidi-font-size: 11.0pt;">Bagi kaum Neo-Keynes, fluktuasi ekonomi terjadi karena
dua penyebab utama. Pertama, terjadinya perubahan-perubahan dalam tingkat
investasi dan rendahnya tingkat konsumsi. Kedua, fluktuasi terjadi karena tidak
adanya mekanisme koreksi yang mampu mendorong perekonomian pada keseimbangan <i>full-employment</i>, yang disebabkan oleh
kakunya harga dan tingkat upah dalam mekanisme penyesuaian. Kerena perekonomian
tidak selalu berada pada keseimbangan, sering terjadi fluktuasi.
Ketidakseimbangan perekonomian yang berkaitan dengan pengangguran dan inflasi
menyebabkan kaum neo-keynesian percaya perlunya intervensi dari pemerintah
sebagai langkah koreksi.<o:p></o:p></span></div>
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<a name='more'></a>Berikut tokoh-tokoh pemikir yang fenomenal dari kaum neo-keynesian:<o:p></o:p><br />
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<!--[if !supportLists]--><b><span lang="EN-US" style="font-size: 12.0pt; line-height: 115%; mso-ansi-language: EN-US; mso-bidi-font-family: Calibri; mso-bidi-font-size: 11.0pt; mso-bidi-theme-font: minor-latin;">1.<span style="font-size: 7pt; font-weight: normal; line-height: normal;">
</span></span></b><!--[endif]--><b><span lang="EN-US" style="font-size: 12.0pt; line-height: 115%; mso-ansi-language: EN-US; mso-bidi-font-size: 11.0pt;">Alvin Hansen<o:p></o:p></span></b></div>
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<span lang="EN-US" style="font-size: 12.0pt; line-height: 115%; mso-ansi-language: EN-US; mso-bidi-font-size: 11.0pt;">Hansen berhasil menyusun secara sistematis serangkaian
pikiran dasar Keynes dalam suatu kerangka analisis yang rapi dan utuh. Dia
dengan jelas menujukkan hal-hal pokok pada sistem pemikirannya dalam ramifikasinya
terhadap kebijakan negara secara langsung dan tidak langsung.<o:p></o:p></span></div>
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<span lang="EN-US" style="font-size: 12.0pt; line-height: 115%; mso-ansi-language: EN-US; mso-bidi-font-size: 11.0pt;">Hansen juga menjelaskan permasalahan mengenai
pendapatan nasional, investasi, dan kesempatan kerja, yang ditempatkan dalam
suatu pola perkembangan ekonomi yang ditandai gerak gelombang kegiatan yang
menaik dan menurun (dalam hal ini Hansen juga dipengaruhi oleh pemikiran Joseph
Schumpeter, yang bersama-sama berinduk di Harvard University). Dalam hubungan
ini, pengelolaan permintaan agragatif dilihat sebagai pencerminan dari
kebijakan fiskal yang anti-siklis. Hansen juga menghubungkan antara beberapa
pemikiran dari Alfred Marshall dan dari cabang ilmu ekonomi pemikiran Keynes.
Dalam pola pendekatan Hansen, kini teori siklus ekonomi dijadikan lagi sebagai
bagian dalam kerangka teori ekonomi umum.<o:p></o:p></span></div>
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<!--[if !supportLists]--><b><span lang="EN-US" style="font-size: 12.0pt; line-height: 115%; mso-ansi-language: EN-US; mso-bidi-font-family: Calibri; mso-bidi-font-size: 11.0pt; mso-bidi-theme-font: minor-latin;">2.<span style="font-size: 7pt; font-weight: normal; line-height: normal;">
</span></span></b><!--[endif]--><b><span lang="EN-US" style="font-size: 12.0pt; line-height: 115%; mso-ansi-language: EN-US; mso-bidi-font-size: 11.0pt;">Joseph Schumpeter<o:p></o:p></span></b></div>
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<span lang="EN-US" style="font-size: 12.0pt; line-height: 115%; mso-ansi-language: EN-US; mso-bidi-font-size: 11.0pt;">Dari masa-masa sebelumnya, pakar pertama yang lebih
serius dalam mengembang teori pertumbuhan adalah Schumpeter. Bagi dia, pelaku
utama pertumbuhan ekonomi adalah adanya <i>entepreneu</i>r.
<i>Entrepreneur</i> bukan hanya seorang
pengusaha atau manajer, melainkan juga seseorang yang mau menerima risiko dan
menghasilkan produk dan teknologi baru dalam masyarakat.<o:p></o:p></span></div>
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<span lang="EN-US" style="font-size: 12.0pt; line-height: 115%; mso-ansi-language: EN-US; mso-bidi-font-size: 11.0pt;">Menurutnya, pertumbuhan ekonomi akan berkembang pesat
dalam lingkungan, masyarakat yang menghargai dan merangsang orang untuk
menggali penemuan-penemuan baru, seperti lingkungan masyarakat penganut <i>laissez faire</i>. Dalam masyarakat yang
demikian, insentif bagi penemuan baru lebih tinggi. <o:p></o:p></span></div>
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<span lang="EN-US" style="font-size: 12.0pt; line-height: 115%; mso-ansi-language: EN-US; mso-bidi-font-size: 11.0pt;">Juga depresi tahun 30-an, menurut Schumpeter, bukan
karena kelemahan sistem kapatilis tetapi justru karena kekuatannya, yang pada
saat itu perekonomian sedang berada dalam salah satu titik terendah dalam suatu
gelombang panjang. Jika ditemukan inovasi dan teknologi baru, perekonomian akan
membaik kembali.<o:p></o:p></span></div>
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<!--[if !supportLists]--><b><span lang="EN-US" style="font-size: 12.0pt; line-height: 115%; mso-ansi-language: EN-US; mso-bidi-font-family: Calibri; mso-bidi-font-size: 11.0pt; mso-bidi-theme-font: minor-latin;">3.<span style="font-size: 7pt; font-weight: normal; line-height: normal;">
</span></span></b><!--[endif]--><b><span lang="EN-US" style="font-size: 12.0pt; line-height: 115%; mso-ansi-language: EN-US; mso-bidi-font-size: 11.0pt;">Simon Kuznets<o:p></o:p></span></b></div>
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<span lang="EN-US" style="font-size: 12.0pt; line-height: 115%; mso-ansi-language: EN-US; mso-bidi-font-size: 11.0pt;">Kuznets berperan dalam kegiatan yang bersangkut-paut
dengan data statistik yang selanjutnya berkembang menjadi ilmu pengetahuan
dengan kerangka analisis berdasarkan teknik dan metode matematika canggih.
Kuznets memantau kegiatan ekonomi dalam masyarakat dengan berpangkal pada suatu
kerangka perhitungan nasional dengan dilengkapi tentang unsur-unsur komponen
dalam pendapatan nasional.<o:p></o:p></span></div>
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<span lang="EN-US" style="font-size: 12.0pt; line-height: 115%; mso-ansi-language: EN-US; mso-bidi-font-size: 11.0pt;">Berkat karya kuznets tersebut, pengertian-pengertian
pokok dalam kerangka teori Keynes dapat diberikan wujud nyata secara
kuantitatif-empiris, seperti mengenai hubungan antara pendapatan-konsumsi-tabungan-investasi
dalam masyarakat secara agregat. Dan segala sesuatu itu dapat diamati dan
dikaji secara berturut-turut sesuai tahapan dalam perkembangan waktu. Hal ini
dikenal sebagai <i>time series analysis</i>.<o:p></o:p></span></div>
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<br /></div>
<div class="MsoListParagraph" style="margin-left: 14.2pt; mso-add-space: auto; mso-list: l0 level1 lfo1; text-align: justify; text-indent: -14.7pt;">
<!--[if !supportLists]--><b><span lang="EN-US" style="font-size: 12.0pt; line-height: 115%; mso-ansi-language: EN-US; mso-bidi-font-family: Calibri; mso-bidi-font-size: 11.0pt; mso-bidi-theme-font: minor-latin;">4.<span style="font-size: 7pt; font-weight: normal; line-height: normal;">
</span></span></b><!--[endif]--><b><span lang="EN-US" style="font-size: 12.0pt; line-height: 115%; mso-ansi-language: EN-US; mso-bidi-font-size: 11.0pt;">Paul Samuelson<o:p></o:p></span></b></div>
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<span lang="EN-US" style="font-size: 12.0pt; line-height: 115%; mso-ansi-language: EN-US; mso-bidi-font-size: 11.0pt;">Di bawah pengaruh Samuelson, kerangka dasar pemikiran
Keynes disempurnakan sampai pada tingkat yang lebih manju dan dalam lingkup
pembahasan yang lebih luas.<o:p></o:p></span></div>
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<span lang="EN-US" style="font-size: 12.0pt; line-height: 115%; mso-ansi-language: EN-US; mso-bidi-font-size: 11.0pt;">Ada dua hal yang berjasa dari ulasan Samuelson.
Pertama, diperlihatkannya tentang hubungan timbal-balik antara faktor <i>multiplier </i>dan asas <i>accelerator</i>, yang berimplikasi bahwa <i>multiplier </i>dan <i>accelerator </i>saling
memperkuat perannya dalam jalannya perekonomian secara agregat. Permintaan
efektif dari masyarakat dipengaruhi oleh
investasi langsung (<i>autonomous
investment</i>), yang selanjutnya melalui faktor <i>multiplier</i> menyebabkan tambahan pendapatan dengan berlipat.
Permintaan efektif pun dapat diberi stimulan yag berawal dari pengeluaran
konsumen, yang selanjutnya melalui asas accelerator secara tidak langsung
menyebabkan bertambahnya investasi (<i>induced
investement</i>).<o:p></o:p></span></div>
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<span lang="EN-US" style="font-size: 12.0pt; line-height: 115%; mso-ansi-language: EN-US; mso-bidi-font-size: 11.0pt;">Bidang kedua adalah mengenai lalu lintas perdagangan
dan pembayaran internasional. Samuelson memperjelas hubungan antara kebijakan
fiskal dengan keseimbangan dalam lalu lintas pembayaran internasional. Hal ini
memperllihatkan peranan <i>foreign trade
multiplier</i> (dampak <i>multiplier</i>
yang berasal dari perdangan luar negeri) dan berbagai kemungkinan penyimpangan
dari keseimbangan internasional. Di sini dapat dilihat adanya integrasi
mengenai segi ekulibrium internasional ke dalam kerangka umum teori ekonomi
makro.<o:p></o:p></span></div>
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<br /></div>
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<!--[if !supportLists]--><b><span lang="EN-US" style="font-size: 12.0pt; line-height: 115%; mso-ansi-language: EN-US; mso-bidi-font-family: Calibri; mso-bidi-font-size: 11.0pt; mso-bidi-theme-font: minor-latin;">5.<span style="font-size: 7pt; font-weight: normal; line-height: normal;">
</span></span></b><!--[endif]--><b><span lang="EN-US" style="font-size: 12.0pt; line-height: 115%; mso-ansi-language: EN-US; mso-bidi-font-size: 11.0pt;">Walt Withman Rostow<o:p></o:p></span></b></div>
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<span lang="EN-US" style="font-size: 12.0pt; line-height: 115%; mso-ansi-language: EN-US; mso-bidi-font-size: 11.0pt;">Teori pembangunan yang paling terkenal adalah ulasan
dari Rostow, yang mengatakan bahwa negara-negara berkembang yang ingin maju
harus melalui tahap-tahap pembangunan sebagai berikut.<o:p></o:p></span></div>
<div class="MsoListParagraphCxSpFirst" style="margin-left: 21.3pt; mso-add-space: auto; mso-list: l1 level1 lfo2; text-align: justify; text-indent: -14.7pt;">
<!--[if !supportLists]--><span lang="EN-US" style="font-family: "symbol"; font-size: 12.0pt; line-height: 115%;">·<span style="font-family: "times new roman"; font-size: 7pt; line-height: normal;">
</span></span><!--[endif]--><span lang="EN-US" style="font-size: 12.0pt; line-height: 115%; mso-ansi-language: EN-US; mso-bidi-font-size: 11.0pt;">Tahap
tradisional statis<o:p></o:p></span></div>
<div class="MsoListParagraphCxSpMiddle" style="margin-left: 21.3pt; mso-add-space: auto; text-align: justify;">
<span lang="EN-US" style="font-size: 12.0pt; line-height: 115%; mso-ansi-language: EN-US; mso-bidi-font-size: 11.0pt;">Yang dicirikan oleh keadaan
IPTEK yang masih sangat rendah dan tidak berpengaruh terhadap kehidupan dan
perekonomian pun masih didominasi sektor pertanian-pedesaan. Struktur
sosial-politik masih kaku.<o:p></o:p></span></div>
<div class="MsoListParagraphCxSpMiddle" style="margin-left: 21.3pt; mso-add-space: auto; mso-list: l1 level1 lfo2; text-align: justify; text-indent: -14.7pt;">
<!--[if !supportLists]--><span lang="EN-US" style="font-family: "symbol"; font-size: 12.0pt; line-height: 115%;">·<span style="font-family: "times new roman"; font-size: 7pt; line-height: normal;">
</span></span><!--[endif]--><span lang="EN-US" style="font-size: 12.0pt; line-height: 115%; mso-ansi-language: EN-US; mso-bidi-font-size: 11.0pt;">Tahap
transisi<o:p></o:p></span></div>
<div class="MsoListParagraphCxSpMiddle" style="margin-left: 21.3pt; mso-add-space: auto; text-align: justify;">
<span lang="EN-US" style="font-size: 12.0pt; line-height: 115%; mso-ansi-language: EN-US; mso-bidi-font-size: 11.0pt;">IPTEK mulai berkembang,
sehingga produktivitas semakin meningkat dan industri semakin berkembang.
Tenaga kerja mulai beralih dari sektor pertanian ke sektor industri,
pertumbuhan tinggi, kaum pedagang bermunculan, dan struktur sosial-politik
semakin membaik.<o:p></o:p></span></div>
<div class="MsoListParagraphCxSpMiddle" style="margin-left: 21.3pt; mso-add-space: auto; mso-list: l1 level1 lfo2; text-align: justify; text-indent: -14.7pt;">
<!--[if !supportLists]--><span lang="EN-US" style="font-family: "symbol"; font-size: 12.0pt; line-height: 115%;">·<span style="font-family: "times new roman"; font-size: 7pt; line-height: normal;">
</span></span><!--[endif]--><span lang="EN-US" style="font-size: 12.0pt; line-height: 115%; mso-ansi-language: EN-US; mso-bidi-font-size: 11.0pt;">Tahap lepas
landas (<i>take-off)</i><o:p></o:p></span></div>
<div class="MsoListParagraphCxSpMiddle" style="margin-left: 21.3pt; mso-add-space: auto; text-align: justify;">
<span lang="EN-US" style="font-size: 12.0pt; line-height: 115%; mso-ansi-language: EN-US; mso-bidi-font-size: 11.0pt;">Dicirikan oleh keadaan suatu
hambatan sosial-politik yang umumnya dapat diatasi. Tingkat kebudayaan dan
IPTEK semakin maju, investasi dan pertumbuhan tetap tinggi, dan mulai adanya
ekspansi perdagangan ke luar negeri.<o:p></o:p></span></div>
<div class="MsoListParagraphCxSpMiddle" style="margin-left: 21.3pt; mso-add-space: auto; mso-list: l1 level1 lfo2; text-align: justify; text-indent: -14.7pt;">
<!--[if !supportLists]--><span lang="EN-US" style="font-family: "symbol"; font-size: 12.0pt; line-height: 115%;">·<span style="font-family: "times new roman"; font-size: 7pt; line-height: normal;">
</span></span><!--[endif]--><span lang="EN-US" style="font-size: 12.0pt; line-height: 115%; mso-ansi-language: EN-US; mso-bidi-font-size: 11.0pt;">Tahap
dewasa<o:p></o:p></span></div>
<div class="MsoListParagraphCxSpMiddle" style="margin-left: 21.3pt; mso-add-space: auto; text-align: justify;">
<span lang="EN-US" style="font-size: 12.0pt; line-height: 115%; mso-ansi-language: EN-US; mso-bidi-font-size: 11.0pt;">Masyarakat semakin tinggi
penguasaan IPTEK, sehingga terjadi perubahan komposisi angkatan kerja di mana
jumlah <i>skilled labor</i> lebih banyak
daripada <i>unskilled labor</i>. Serikat
dagang dan gerakan buruh semakin maju dan berperan. Pendapatan perkapita
tinggi.<o:p></o:p></span></div>
<div class="MsoListParagraphCxSpMiddle" style="margin-left: 21.3pt; mso-add-space: auto; mso-list: l1 level1 lfo2; text-align: justify; text-indent: -14.7pt;">
<!--[if !supportLists]--><span lang="EN-US" style="font-family: "symbol"; font-size: 12.0pt; line-height: 115%;">·<span style="font-family: "times new roman"; font-size: 7pt; line-height: normal;">
</span></span><!--[endif]--><span lang="EN-US" style="font-size: 12.0pt; line-height: 115%; mso-ansi-language: EN-US; mso-bidi-font-size: 11.0pt;">Tahap <i>mass consumption</i><o:p></o:p></span></div>
<div class="MsoListParagraphCxSpLast" style="margin-left: 21.3pt; mso-add-space: auto; text-align: justify;">
<span lang="EN-US" style="font-size: 12.0pt; line-height: 115%; mso-ansi-language: EN-US; mso-bidi-font-size: 11.0pt;">Masyarakat hidup serba
kecukupan, kehidupan aman tentram, dan laju pertumbuhan penduduk semakin
rendah.<o:p></o:p></span></div>
<div class="MsoNormal" style="text-align: justify; text-indent: 1.0cm;">
<span lang="EN-US" style="font-size: 12.0pt; line-height: 115%; mso-ansi-language: EN-US; mso-bidi-font-size: 11.0pt;">Proses di atas hanya bisa berlangsung jika dipenuhi
beberapa kondisi, seperti pemerintahan yang stabil, adanya perbaikan tingkat
pendidikan, adanya kelompok inovator dan wiraswastawan, meningkatnya tabungan
dan investasi hingga mencapai 10 persen dari pendapatan nasional, dan adanya
reformasi sosial.<o:p></o:p></span></div>
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<br /></div>
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<br /></div>
<div class="MsoNormal" style="text-align: justify;">
<b><span lang="EN-US" style="font-size: 14.0pt; line-height: 115%; mso-ansi-language: EN-US; mso-bidi-font-size: 11.0pt;"><u>New-Keynesian</u><o:p></o:p></span></b></div>
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<br /></div>
<div class="MsoNormal" style="text-align: justify;">
<span lang="EN-US" style="font-size: 6.0pt; line-height: 115%; mso-ansi-language: EN-US; mso-bidi-font-size: 11.0pt;"><br /></span></div>
<div class="MsoNormal" style="text-align: justify;">
<b><span lang="EN-US" style="font-size: 12.0pt; line-height: 115%; mso-ansi-language: EN-US; mso-bidi-font-size: 11.0pt;">Nicholas Gregory Mankiw<o:p></o:p></span></b></div>
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<span lang="EN-US" style="font-size: 12.0pt; line-height: 115%; mso-ansi-language: EN-US; mso-bidi-font-size: 11.0pt;">Mankiw adalah Professor
Ekonomi di Harvard University. Penelitiannya mencakup banyak bidang dalam ilmu
ekonomi dan meliputi berbagai tulisan mengenai penyesuaian harga, perilaku
konsumen, pasar keuangan, kebijakan moneter dan fiskal, dan pertumbuhan
ekonomi.<o:p></o:p></span></div>
<div class="MsoNormal" style="margin-bottom: .0001pt; margin-bottom: 0cm; text-align: justify; text-indent: 1.0cm;">
<span lang="EN-US" style="font-size: 12.0pt; line-height: 115%; mso-ansi-language: EN-US; mso-bidi-font-size: 11.0pt;">Dalam konsep makroekonominya
yang sangat terkenal dan merupakan bidang ahlinya, Mankiw menawarkan
keseimbangan dalam pembahasan isu-isu makroekonomi jangka pendek dan jangka panjang, mengintegrasikan
wawasan teori klasik dan teori Keynes, menyajikan teori ekonomi dengan beberapa
variasi model sederhana, dan memberikan penekanan bahwa makroekonomi adalah
disiplin ilmu empiris yang banyak berkaitan dengan bidang-bidang ilmu lainnya.<o:p></o:p></span></div>
<div class="MsoNormal" style="margin-bottom: .0001pt; margin-bottom: 0cm; text-align: justify; text-indent: 1.0cm;">
<span lang="EN-US" style="font-size: 12.0pt; line-height: 115%; mso-ansi-language: EN-US; mso-bidi-font-size: 11.0pt;">Mankiw merumuskan teori-teori
ekonomi ke dalam “<i>Ten Principles of
Economics</i>”-nya. Tujuannya adalah untuk menjelaskan <i>overview</i> tentang apa itu ekonomi. Kesepuluh prinsip tersebut
adalah:<o:p></o:p></span></div>
<div class="MsoListParagraphCxSpFirst" style="margin-bottom: .0001pt; margin-bottom: 0cm; margin-left: 14.2pt; margin-right: 0cm; margin-top: 0cm; mso-add-space: auto; mso-list: l2 level1 lfo3; text-align: justify; text-indent: -14.15pt;">
<!--[if !supportLists]--><span lang="EN-US" style="font-size: 12.0pt; line-height: 115%; mso-ansi-language: EN-US; mso-bidi-font-family: Calibri; mso-bidi-font-size: 11.0pt; mso-bidi-theme-font: minor-latin;">1.<span style="font-size: 7pt; line-height: normal;">
</span></span><!--[endif]--><span lang="EN-US" style="font-size: 12.0pt; line-height: 115%; mso-ansi-language: EN-US; mso-bidi-font-size: 11.0pt;">Orang
menghadapi berbagai <i>trade-off </i>(efisiensi
dan <i>equality</i>)<o:p></o:p></span></div>
<div class="MsoListParagraphCxSpMiddle" style="margin-left: 14.2pt; mso-add-space: auto; mso-list: l2 level1 lfo3; text-align: justify; text-indent: -14.15pt;">
<!--[if !supportLists]--><span lang="EN-US" style="font-size: 12.0pt; line-height: 115%; mso-ansi-language: EN-US; mso-bidi-font-family: Calibri; mso-bidi-font-size: 11.0pt; mso-bidi-theme-font: minor-latin;">2.<span style="font-size: 7pt; line-height: normal;">
</span></span><!--[endif]--><span lang="EN-US" style="font-size: 12.0pt; line-height: 115%; mso-ansi-language: EN-US; mso-bidi-font-size: 11.0pt;">Biaya
adalah sesuatu yang dikorbankan oleh seseorang untuk mendapatkan sesuatu hal
yang lain <o:p></o:p></span></div>
<div class="MsoListParagraphCxSpMiddle" style="margin-left: 14.2pt; mso-add-space: auto; mso-list: l2 level1 lfo3; text-align: justify; text-indent: -14.15pt;">
<!--[if !supportLists]--><span lang="EN-US" style="font-size: 12.0pt; line-height: 115%; mso-ansi-language: EN-US; mso-bidi-font-family: Calibri; mso-bidi-font-size: 11.0pt; mso-bidi-theme-font: minor-latin;">3.<span style="font-size: 7pt; line-height: normal;">
</span></span><!--[endif]--><span lang="EN-US" style="font-size: 12.0pt; line-height: 115%; mso-ansi-language: EN-US; mso-bidi-font-size: 11.0pt;">Orang
rasional berpikir terhadap margin (perubahan marginal)<o:p></o:p></span></div>
<div class="MsoListParagraphCxSpMiddle" style="margin-left: 14.2pt; mso-add-space: auto; mso-list: l2 level1 lfo3; text-align: justify; text-indent: -14.15pt;">
<!--[if !supportLists]--><span lang="EN-US" style="font-size: 12.0pt; line-height: 115%; mso-ansi-language: EN-US; mso-bidi-font-family: Calibri; mso-bidi-font-size: 11.0pt; mso-bidi-theme-font: minor-latin;">4.<span style="font-size: 7pt; line-height: normal;">
</span></span><!--[endif]--><span lang="EN-US" style="font-size: 12.0pt; line-height: 115%; mso-ansi-language: EN-US; mso-bidi-font-size: 11.0pt;">Orang bereaksi
terhadap insentif<o:p></o:p></span></div>
<div class="MsoListParagraphCxSpMiddle" style="margin-left: 14.2pt; mso-add-space: auto; mso-list: l2 level1 lfo3; text-align: justify; text-indent: -14.15pt;">
<!--[if !supportLists]--><span lang="EN-US" style="font-size: 12.0pt; line-height: 115%; mso-ansi-language: EN-US; mso-bidi-font-family: Calibri; mso-bidi-font-size: 11.0pt; mso-bidi-theme-font: minor-latin;">5.<span style="font-size: 7pt; line-height: normal;">
</span></span><!--[endif]--><span lang="EN-US" style="font-size: 12.0pt; line-height: 115%; mso-ansi-language: EN-US; mso-bidi-font-size: 11.0pt;">Perdagangan/pertukaran
dapat membuat setiap orang menjadi lebih baik<o:p></o:p></span></div>
<div class="MsoListParagraphCxSpMiddle" style="margin-left: 14.2pt; mso-add-space: auto; mso-list: l2 level1 lfo3; text-align: justify; text-indent: -14.15pt;">
<!--[if !supportLists]--><span lang="EN-US" style="font-size: 12.0pt; line-height: 115%; mso-ansi-language: EN-US; mso-bidi-font-family: Calibri; mso-bidi-font-size: 11.0pt; mso-bidi-theme-font: minor-latin;">6.<span style="font-size: 7pt; line-height: normal;"> </span></span><span lang="EN-US" style="font-size: 12.0pt; line-height: 115%; mso-ansi-language: EN-US; mso-bidi-font-size: 11.0pt;">Pasar
merupakan sebuah solusi yang baik untuk mengorganisir aktivitas ekonomi
(tentang ekonomi pasar)<o:p></o:p></span></div>
<div class="MsoListParagraphCxSpMiddle" style="margin-left: 14.2pt; mso-add-space: auto; mso-list: l2 level1 lfo3; text-align: justify; text-indent: -14.15pt;">
<!--[if !supportLists]--><span lang="EN-US" style="font-size: 12.0pt; line-height: 115%; mso-ansi-language: EN-US; mso-bidi-font-family: Calibri; mso-bidi-font-size: 11.0pt; mso-bidi-theme-font: minor-latin;">7.<span style="font-size: 7pt; line-height: normal;"> </span></span><span lang="EN-US" style="font-size: 12.0pt; line-height: 115%; mso-ansi-language: EN-US; mso-bidi-font-size: 11.0pt;">Pemerintah
terkadang dapat meningkatkan kinerja pasar (tentang kegagalan pasar,
eksternalitas, dan kekuatan pasar)<o:p></o:p></span></div>
<div class="MsoListParagraphCxSpMiddle" style="margin-left: 14.2pt; mso-add-space: auto; mso-list: l2 level1 lfo3; text-align: justify; text-indent: -14.15pt;">
<!--[if !supportLists]--><span lang="EN-US" style="font-size: 12.0pt; line-height: 115%; mso-ansi-language: EN-US; mso-bidi-font-family: Calibri; mso-bidi-font-size: 11.0pt; mso-bidi-theme-font: minor-latin;">8.<span style="font-size: 7pt; line-height: normal;"> </span></span><span lang="EN-US" style="font-size: 12.0pt; line-height: 115%; mso-ansi-language: EN-US; mso-bidi-font-size: 11.0pt;">Standar
hidup sebuah negara bergantung pada kemampuannya dalam memproduksi barang dan
jasa (tentang produktivitas)<o:p></o:p></span></div>
<div class="MsoListParagraphCxSpMiddle" style="margin-left: 14.2pt; mso-add-space: auto; mso-list: l2 level1 lfo3; text-align: justify; text-indent: -14.15pt;">
<!--[if !supportLists]--><span lang="EN-US" style="font-size: 12.0pt; line-height: 115%; mso-ansi-language: EN-US; mso-bidi-font-family: Calibri; mso-bidi-font-size: 11.0pt; mso-bidi-theme-font: minor-latin;">9.<span style="font-size: 7pt; line-height: normal;">
</span></span><!--[endif]--><span lang="EN-US" style="font-size: 12.0pt; line-height: 115%; mso-ansi-language: EN-US; mso-bidi-font-size: 11.0pt;">Harga-harga
meningkat ketika pemerintah mencetak uang terlalu banyak (tentang inflasi)<o:p></o:p></span></div>
<div class="MsoListParagraphCxSpLast" style="margin-left: 14.2pt; mso-add-space: auto; mso-list: l2 level1 lfo3; text-align: justify; text-indent: -14.15pt;">
<!--[if !supportLists]--><span lang="EN-US" style="font-size: 12.0pt; line-height: 115%; mso-ansi-language: EN-US; mso-bidi-font-family: Calibri; mso-bidi-font-size: 11.0pt; mso-bidi-theme-font: minor-latin;">10.</span><span lang="EN-US" style="font-size: xx-small; line-height: 115%;"> </span><span lang="EN-US" style="font-size: 12.0pt; line-height: 115%; mso-ansi-language: EN-US; mso-bidi-font-size: 11.0pt;">Masyarakat
menghadapi <i>trade-off</i> jangka pendek
antara inflasi dan pengangguran (tentang fluktuasi ekonomi)<o:p></o:p></span></div>
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<br /></div>
<div class="MsoNormal" style="text-align: justify;">
<b><span lang="EN-US" style="font-size: 12.0pt; line-height: 115%; mso-ansi-language: EN-US; mso-bidi-font-size: 11.0pt;">David Romer<o:p></o:p></span></b></div>
<div class="MsoNormal" style="text-align: justify; text-indent: 1.0cm;">
<span lang="EN-US" style="font-size: 12.0pt; line-height: 115%; mso-ansi-language: EN-US; mso-bidi-font-size: 11.0pt;">Romer adalah Professor ekonomi politik di University of California,
Berkeley. Dia merupakan pakar ekonomi di bidang makroekonomi. Dalam karya terbarunya,
Romer bekerja sama dengan istrinya, Christina Romer, pada kebijakan fiskal dan
moneter dari tahun 1950 hingga saat ini, dengan menggunakan catatan dari
pertemuan Komite Pasar Terbuka Federal (FOMC) dan bahan-bahan dari staf The Fed
untuk mempelajari bagaimana Federal Reserve membuat keputusan. Karyanya
menunjukkan bahwa beberapa dari kredit untuk pertumbuhan ekonomi yang relatif
stabil pada tahun 1950, <i>should lies</i>
dengan <i>good policy</i> oleh Federal
Reserve, di samping itu anggota FOMC telah membuat keputusan yang lebih baik
dengan mengandalkan lebih dekat pada perkiraan yang dibuat oleh staf The Fed
tersebut.<o:p></o:p></span></div>
<div class="MsoNormal" style="text-align: justify; text-indent: 1.0cm;">
<span lang="EN-US" style="font-size: 12.0pt; line-height: 115%; mso-ansi-language: EN-US; mso-bidi-font-size: 11.0pt;">Baru-baru ini, Romers (David dan Christina) berfokus
pada dampak kebijakan pajak pemerintah dan pertumbuhan ekonomi secara umum.
Karya ini terlihat pada catatan sejarah perubahan pajak Amerika Serikat dari
1945-2007, tidak termasuk perubahan pajak endogen, yang dibuat untuk melawan
resesi atau meringankan biaya pengeluaran baru pemerintah. Ia menemukan bahwa ada
peningkatan pajak eksogen, dibuat misalnya untuk mengurangi pewarisan defisit
anggaran, mengurangi pertumbuhan ekonomi (meskipun dengan jumlah yang lebih
kecil setelah tahun 1980 dari sebelumnya). Romers juga menemukan, "Tidak
ada dukungan untuk hipotesis bahwa pemotongan pajak mengendalikan pengeluaran
pemerintah, memang pemotongan pajak bisa saja meningkatkan pengeluaran. Hasil
penelitian juga menunjukkan bahwa efek utama dari pemotongan pajak pada anggaran
pemerintah adalah mendorong timbulnya peningkatan pajak berikutnya"<o:p></o:p></span></div>
<div class="MsoNormal" style="text-align: justify; text-indent: 1.0cm;">
<span lang="EN-US" style="font-size: 12.0pt; line-height: 115%; mso-ansi-language: EN-US; mso-bidi-font-size: 11.0pt;">Ia juga menulis tentang beberapa mata pelajaran bagi
ekonom makro, seperti “Do Students Go to Class? Should They?” dan “Do Firms
Maximize? Evidence from Professional Football”.<o:p></o:p></span></div>
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<br /></div>
<div class="MsoNormal" style="text-align: justify;">
<b><span lang="EN-US" style="font-size: 12.0pt; line-height: 115%; mso-ansi-language: EN-US; mso-bidi-font-size: 11.0pt;">Dynamic Stochastic General Equlibrium
(DSGE)<o:p></o:p></span></b></div>
<div class="MsoNormal" style="text-align: justify; text-indent: 1.0cm;">
<span lang="EN-US" style="font-size: 12.0pt; line-height: 115%; mso-ansi-language: EN-US; mso-bidi-font-size: 11.0pt;">Model ini adalah cabang dari teori keseimbangan umum
terapan yang berpengaruh dalam makroekonomi kontemporer. Metodologi DSGE
berupaya menjelaskan fenomena ekonomi agregat, seperti pertumbuhan ekonomi,
siklus bisnis, dan dampak kebijakan moneter dan fiskal, berdasarkan model
ekonomi makro yang berasal dari prinsip ekonomi mikro. Salah satu alasan utama
makroekonomi berusaha untuk membangun model <i>microfounded</i>
adalah, tidak seperti yang lebih tradisional model peramalan makroekonometrik,
model <i>microfounded</i> pada prinsipnya tidak
harus rentan terhadap kritik Lucas. Selain itu, karena dasar mikro didasarkan
pada preferensi pengambil keputusan dalam model, fitur model DSGE merupakan
indikator alami untuk mengevaluasi efek kesejahteraan dari perubahan kebijakan.
Struktur dari model DSGE ini adalah preferensi, teknologi, dan kerangka
institusional.<o:p></o:p></span></div>
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<b><u><span lang="EN-US" style="font-size: 14.0pt; line-height: 115%; mso-ansi-language: EN-US; mso-bidi-font-size: 11.0pt;">Daftar Pustaka<o:p></o:p></span></u></b></div>
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<br /></div>
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<span lang="EN-US" style="font-size: 12.0pt; line-height: 115%; mso-ansi-language: EN-US; mso-bidi-font-size: 11.0pt;">Bahan Mengajar Mata Kuliah <i>Sejarah Pemikiran Ekonomi</i> oleh Muhammad
Ilhamsyah Siregar, S.E.,MA. Fakultas Ekonomi, Universitas Syiah Kuala, Banda
Aceh.<o:p></o:p></span></div>
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<span lang="EN-US" style="font-size: 12.0pt; line-height: 115%; mso-ansi-language: EN-US; mso-bidi-font-size: 11.0pt;">Deliarnov. 2010. <i>Perkembangan Pemikiran Ekonomi Edisi Ketiga Revisi</i>. Jakarta:
Rajawali Pers<o:p></o:p></span></div>
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<span lang="EN-US" style="font-size: 12.0pt; line-height: 115%; mso-ansi-language: EN-US; mso-bidi-font-size: 11.0pt;">Djojohadikusumo, Sumitro. 1991. <i>Perkembangan Pemikiran Ekonomi Edisi I</i>.
Jakarta: Yayasan Obor Indonesia.<o:p></o:p></span></div>
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<span lang="EN-US" style="font-size: 12.0pt; line-height: 115%; mso-ansi-language: EN-US; mso-bidi-font-size: 11.0pt;">Mankiw, N. Gregory. 2009. <i>Principles of Economics 6<sup>th</sup>
Edition (International Edition)</i>. Canada: South-Western Cencage Learning<o:p></o:p></span></div>
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<span lang="EN-US" style="font-size: 12.0pt; line-height: 115%; mso-ansi-language: EN-US; mso-bidi-font-size: 11.0pt;">Wikipedia<o:p></o:p></span></div>
Teuku Bahran Basyiranhttp://www.blogger.com/profile/10525417589204464156noreply@blogger.com0tag:blogger.com,1999:blog-3600626824018511994.post-81058663994511796182012-08-22T19:02:00.001+02:002018-06-26T16:47:38.858+02:00Pemikiran & Konsep Ekonomi Keynes<!-- Global site tag (gtag.js) - Google Analytics -->
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<i style="font-size: 14pt; line-height: 115%; text-align: justify;">Oleh: T. Bahran Basyiran</i><br />
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<b><span lang="EN-US" style="font-size: 14.0pt; line-height: 115%; mso-ansi-language: EN-US; mso-bidi-font-size: 11.0pt;">Pendahuluan<o:p></o:p></span></b></div>
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<span lang="EN-US" style="font-size: 12.0pt; line-height: 115%; mso-ansi-language: EN-US; mso-bidi-font-size: 11.0pt;">Selama dasawarsa ’30 berlangsung depresi ekonomi yang
ganas dan berkepanjangan. Justru dalam keadaan demikian ternyata segenap
pemikiran-pemikiran sebelumnya, mazhab klasik dan neo-klasik, tidak berdaya
untuk memberi jawaban atas masalah-masalah penting yang sedang dialami dalam
ekonomi masyarakat sebagai keseluruhan. Hal ini berkaitan erat dengan pola
pendekatan dalam alur pikiran kedua mazhab itu yang bersifat mikro terhadap
berbagai permasalahan khusus, di mana tidak dapat terwujud kepaduan utuh dalam
suatu sistem pemikiran dan kerangka analisis yang mencakup proses perekonomian
secara menyeluruh. <o:p></o:p></span></div>
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<span lang="EN-US" style="font-size: 12.0pt; line-height: 115%; mso-ansi-language: EN-US; mso-bidi-font-size: 11.0pt;">Sejak terjadinya depresi besaran-besaran tersebut,
orang curiga bahwa ada sesuatu yang salah dengan teori klasik dan neo-klasik
yang dianggap berlaku umum selama ini.<b> </b>Dalam
menghadapi persoalan ekonomi yang mahadahsyat (terjadi krisis dan sistem
kapitalis jatuh), teori-teori ekonomi yang
dikembangkan oleh pakar-pakar klasik maupun neo-klasik tidak mampu
menjelaskan fenomena dan peristiwa yang sesungguhnya terjadi. Dalam situasi
tidak menentu inilah lahir seorang tokoh ekonomi yang kemudian menjadi sangat
berpengaruh, yaitu John Maynard Keynes.<b><o:p></o:p></b></span></div>
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<span lang="EN-US" style="font-size: 12.0pt; line-height: 115%; mso-ansi-language: EN-US; mso-bidi-font-size: 11.0pt;">Karya tulis atau buku Keynes yang
paling populer adalah <i>The General Theory
of Employment, Interest, and Money</i>. Buku ini ditulis sebagai reaksi terhadap depresi besar-besaran
yang terjadi tahun 1930-an yang tidak berhasil dipecahkan dengan metode klasik
dan neo-klasik.<o:p></o:p></span></div>
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<span lang="EN-US" style="font-size: 12.0pt; line-height: 115%; mso-ansi-language: EN-US; mso-bidi-font-size: 11.0pt;">Teori klasik dinilai Keynes
mengandung banyak kelemahan, sehingga perlu diperbaiki dan disempurnakan, seperti
masalah mekanisme pasar, keseimbangan pasar, ketenagakerjaan, analisis biaya,
tabungan & investasi, dan juga kritikan yang habis-habisan oleh Keynes
terhadap tokoh klasik, J. B. Say tentang teorinya “<i>Supply creates its own demand</i>” (akan dijelaskan lebih lanjut di halaman berikutnya,
poin pertama).<o:p></o:p></span></div>
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<span lang="EN-US" style="font-size: 12.0pt; line-height: 115%; mso-ansi-language: EN-US; mso-bidi-font-size: 11.0pt;">Sedangkan terhadap teori-teori
neo-klasik, Keynes tidak terlalu banyak menemukan banyak kelemahan, akan tetapi
juga tetap Keynes melakukan hal yang sama seperti terhadap klasik, yaitu
melakukan penyempurnaan teorinya agar lebih sesuai dengan kondisi ekonomi saat
sekarang (pada saat itu-red). Juga dikarenakan Keynes merupakan salah satu
murid brilliannya Marshall, yang notabenenya merupakan kaum neo-klasik.
Sehingga sudah pasti karya-karya Marshall banyak diakui oleh Keynes. Mungkin hampir
sebagian besar konsep-konsep Marshall diperbaiki dan disempurnakan oleh Keynes.
<o:p></o:p></span></div>
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<span lang="EN-US" style="font-size: 12.0pt; line-height: 115%; mso-ansi-language: EN-US; mso-bidi-font-size: 11.0pt;">Hal ini menunjukkan adanya peranan
Keynes dalam menjelaskan secara lebih lanjut
dan lebih disempurnakan ide dan konsep yang telah ada, punyanya tokoh mazhab
neo-klasik.<o:p></o:p></span></div>
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<b><span lang="EN-US" style="font-size: 14.0pt; line-height: 115%; mso-ansi-language: EN-US; mso-bidi-font-size: 11.0pt;"></span></b><br />
<a name='more'></a><b><span lang="EN-US" style="font-size: 14.0pt; line-height: 115%; mso-ansi-language: EN-US; mso-bidi-font-size: 11.0pt;">Beberapa Pemikiran dan Konsep ekonomi
Keynes<o:p></o:p></span></b></div>
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<!--[if !supportLists]--><b><span lang="EN-US" style="font-size: 12.0pt; line-height: 115%; mso-ansi-language: EN-US; mso-bidi-font-family: Calibri; mso-bidi-font-size: 11.0pt; mso-bidi-theme-font: minor-latin;">1.<span style="font-size: 7pt; font-weight: normal; line-height: normal;">
</span></span></b><!--[endif]--><b><span lang="EN-US" style="font-size: 12.0pt; line-height: 115%; mso-ansi-language: EN-US; mso-bidi-font-size: 11.0pt;">Latar Belakang Pemikiran dan Konsep Keynes<o:p></o:p></span></b></div>
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<span lang="EN-US" style="font-size: 12.0pt; line-height: 115%; mso-ansi-language: EN-US; mso-bidi-font-size: 11.0pt;">Tema pokok dalam pemikiran sistem klasik adalah bahwa
kegiatan ekonomi senantiasa cenderung pada keadaan ekuilibrium, di mana
kapasitas produksi digunakan secara penuh dengan adanya kesempatan kerja penuh
(<i>full-employment</i>) pula. Kerangka
dasar pemikiran itu diungkapkan oleh Jean Baptiste Say. Spesifiknya, dia
mengatakan bahwa dalam keadaan ekulibrium, produksi selalu cenderung untuk
menciptakan permintaan akan hasil produksi itu sendiri. Kapasitas produksi dan <i>full-employment</i> dimanfaatkan secara
penuh sehingga tidak mungkin terjadi kelebihan produksi ataupun kekurangan
konsumsi maupun pengangguran yang permanen.<o:p></o:p></span></div>
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<span lang="EN-US" style="font-size: 12.0pt; line-height: 115%; mso-ansi-language: EN-US; mso-bidi-font-size: 11.0pt;">Akan tetapi pemikiran dan pandangan kaum klasik di
atas, dapat dikatakan sangat ironis dari kenyataan yang dialami dalam depresi
ekonomi dasawarsa ’30, stagnasi ekonomi dan pengangguran merupakan ciri kronis
dalam suatu lingkaran yang tiada akhirnya, dan hal ini terjadi pada saat itu. <o:p></o:p></span></div>
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<span lang="EN-US" style="font-size: 12.0pt; line-height: 115%; mso-ansi-language: EN-US; mso-bidi-font-size: 11.0pt;">Dengan latar belakang kenyataan tersebut, Keynes
memeriksa dan mengoreksi kembali seluruh pemikiran dan konsep kaum klasik dan
neo-klasik beserta asumsi-asumsi dasarnya. Sedemikian rupa sehingga, Keynes
mencanangkan pemikiran barunya yang akan menjadi suatu pendobrakan terhadap
pemikiran sistem sebelum-sebelumnya.<o:p></o:p></span></div>
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<!--[if !supportLists]--><b><span lang="EN-US" style="font-size: 12.0pt; line-height: 115%; mso-ansi-language: EN-US; mso-bidi-font-family: Calibri; mso-bidi-font-size: 11.0pt; mso-bidi-theme-font: minor-latin;">2.<span style="font-size: 7pt; font-weight: normal; line-height: normal;">
</span></span></b><!--[endif]--><b><i><span lang="EN-US" style="font-size: 12.0pt; line-height: 115%; mso-ansi-language: EN-US; mso-bidi-font-size: 11.0pt;">Underemployment
Equilibrium<o:p></o:p></span></i></b></div>
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<span lang="EN-US" style="font-size: 12.0pt; line-height: 115%; mso-ansi-language: EN-US; mso-bidi-font-size: 11.0pt;">Keynes menyatakan bahwa dalam dunia modern belum tentu
tata susunan ekonominya lazim berada pada keadaan ekulibrium, di mana dapat
terjadi <i>full-employment</i>. Kekuatan
ekonomi dalam sistemnya yang berlangsung dengan sendirinya dan secara otomatis
terjadi koreksi sehingga pergerakan ekonomi menuju lagi pada keadaan ekuilbrium
dengan <i>full-employment</i>, hal tersebut
tidak dapat dibuktikan secara empiris. Yang sering terjadi adalah ekuilibrium
ekonomi yang terdapat banyak pengangguran di angkatan kerja, dengan kapasitas
produksi yang tersedia tidak dapat dimanfaatkan.<o:p></o:p></span></div>
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<span lang="EN-US" style="font-size: 12.0pt; line-height: 115%; mso-ansi-language: EN-US; mso-bidi-font-size: 11.0pt;">Kondisi ekuilibrium seperti itu, Keynes menyebutnya <i>underemployment equilibrium</i>. Jadi, kalau
proses ekonomi dibiarkan begitu saja, yang akan terjadi adalah <i>underemployment equlibrium</i>, bukannya
malah ekuilibrium dengan <i>full-employment</i>
seperti yang dikatakan kaum klasik. Dari sini Keynes mengecam analisis kaum
klasik yang semacam itu yang mana
didasarkan pada pengandaian-pengandaian yang keliru dengan kenyataan
dalam kehidupan sehari-hari.<o:p></o:p></span></div>
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<!--[if !supportLists]--><b><span lang="EN-US" style="font-size: 12.0pt; line-height: 115%; mso-ansi-language: EN-US; mso-bidi-font-family: Calibri; mso-bidi-font-size: 11.0pt; mso-bidi-theme-font: minor-latin;">3.<span style="font-size: 7pt; font-weight: normal; line-height: normal;">
</span></span></b><!--[endif]--><b><span lang="EN-US" style="font-size: 12.0pt; line-height: 115%; mso-ansi-language: EN-US; mso-bidi-font-size: 11.0pt;">Pentingnya Peran Pemerintah dalam Perekonomian<o:p></o:p></span></b></div>
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<span lang="EN-US" style="font-size: 12.0pt; line-height: 115%; mso-ansi-language: EN-US; mso-bidi-font-size: 11.0pt;">Dari hasil pengamatannya tentang depresi awal 30-an,
Keynes merekomendasikan agar perekonomian tidak dibiarkan begitu saja kepada
mekanisme pasar. Hingga batas tertentu, peran pemerintah justru diperlukan.
Dalam situasi yang terjadi gerak gelombang kegiatan ekonmi, pemerintah dapat
menjalankan kebijakan pengeloalan pengeluaran dan pengendalian permintaan
efektif dalam bentuk “anti-siklis”.<o:p></o:p></span></div>
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<span lang="EN-US" style="font-size: 12.0pt; line-height: 115%; mso-ansi-language: EN-US; mso-bidi-font-size: 11.0pt;"> Keynes lebih sering
mengandalkan kebijakan fiskal untuk mengambil berbagai kebijaksanaan, di mana
bisa mempengaruhi jalannya perekonomian. Kebijakan fiskal sangat efektifdalam
meningkatkan output dan memberantas pengangguran, terutama pada situasi saat
sumber daya yang ada belum dimanfaatkan secara efisien.<o:p></o:p></span></div>
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<span lang="EN-US" style="font-size: 12.0pt; line-height: 115%; mso-ansi-language: EN-US; mso-bidi-font-size: 11.0pt;"> Keynes sebenarnya
percaya tentang semua hal yang dikemukakan oleh kaum klasik tentang mekanisme
pasar (doktrin <i>laissez-faire</i>). Tetapi
Keynes menilai bahwa jalan menuju ekuilibrium dan <i>full-employment</i> tersebut sangat panjang. Kalau ditunggu mekanisme
pasar yang dengan sendirinya membawa perekonomian kembali pada posisi
ekulibrium, dibutuhkan waktu yang sangat lama. Jadi menurut Keynes,
satu-satunya cara untuk membawa perekonomian ke arah yang diinginkan jika
perekonomian “lari” dari posisi keseimbangan adalah melalui intervensi atau
campur tangan pemerintah.<o:p></o:p></span></div>
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<span lang="EN-US" style="font-size: 12.0pt; line-height: 115%; mso-ansi-language: EN-US; mso-bidi-font-size: 11.0pt;">Bagi Keynes, campur tangan pemerintah merupakan
keharusan, berbeda dengan kaum klasik yang menganggap “haram” intervensi
pemerintah. Campur tangan pemerintah sangat diperlukan terutama jika
perekonomian berjalan tidak sesuai dengan yang diharapkan.<o:p></o:p></span></div>
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<div class="MsoListParagraph" style="margin-left: 14.2pt; mso-add-space: auto; mso-list: l0 level1 lfo1; text-align: justify; text-indent: -14.7pt;">
<!--[if !supportLists]--><b><span lang="EN-US" style="font-size: 12.0pt; line-height: 115%; mso-ansi-language: EN-US; mso-bidi-font-family: Calibri; mso-bidi-font-size: 11.0pt; mso-bidi-theme-font: minor-latin;">4.<span style="font-size: 7pt; font-weight: normal; line-height: normal;">
</span></span></b><!--[endif]--><b><span lang="EN-US" style="font-size: 12.0pt; line-height: 115%; mso-ansi-language: EN-US; mso-bidi-font-size: 11.0pt;">Inti Pokok Pemikiran Keynes<o:p></o:p></span></b></div>
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<span lang="EN-US" style="font-size: 12.0pt; line-height: 115%; mso-ansi-language: EN-US; mso-bidi-font-size: 11.0pt;">Pada hakikatnya, konsep teori Keynes dapat dipandang
sebagai suatu teori tentang pendapatan dan kesempatan kerja. Inti pokok dalam
sistem pemikiran dan konsep Keynes terdiri dari tiga faktor penting, yaitu:<o:p></o:p></span></div>
<div class="MsoListParagraphCxSpFirst" style="margin-left: 14.2pt; mso-add-space: auto; mso-list: l1 level1 lfo2; text-align: justify; text-indent: -14.7pt;">
<!--[if !supportLists]--><span lang="EN-US" style="font-family: Symbol; font-size: 12.0pt; line-height: 115%; mso-ansi-language: EN-US; mso-bidi-font-family: Symbol; mso-bidi-font-size: 11.0pt; mso-fareast-font-family: Symbol;">·<span style="font-family: 'Times New Roman'; font-size: 7pt; line-height: normal;">
</span></span><!--[endif]--><span lang="EN-US" style="font-size: 12.0pt; line-height: 115%; mso-ansi-language: EN-US; mso-bidi-font-size: 11.0pt;">Hasrat
berkonsumsi (<i>propensity to consume</i>)<o:p></o:p></span></div>
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<span lang="EN-US" style="font-size: 12.0pt; line-height: 115%; mso-ansi-language: EN-US; mso-bidi-font-size: 11.0pt;">Pendapatan
total agregat sama dengan konsumsi total agregat ditambah investasi total
agregat. Tingkat konsumsi bergantung pada hasrat seseorang untuk berkonsumsi,
yang merupakan fungsi dari pendapatan. Begitu juga dengan tabungan, karena
tabungan adalah sisa bagian dari pendapatan yang tidak digunakan untuk
berkonsumsi.<o:p></o:p></span></div>
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<br /></div>
<div class="MsoListParagraphCxSpMiddle" style="margin-left: 14.2pt; mso-add-space: auto; mso-list: l1 level1 lfo2; text-align: justify; text-indent: -14.7pt;">
<!--[if !supportLists]--><span lang="EN-US" style="font-family: Symbol; font-size: 12.0pt; line-height: 115%; mso-ansi-language: EN-US; mso-bidi-font-family: Symbol; mso-bidi-font-size: 11.0pt; mso-fareast-font-family: Symbol;">·<span style="font-family: 'Times New Roman'; font-size: 7pt; line-height: normal;">
</span></span><!--[endif]--><span lang="EN-US" style="font-size: 12.0pt; line-height: 115%; mso-ansi-language: EN-US; mso-bidi-font-size: 11.0pt;">Tingkat
bunga (<i>interest</i>) yang memiliki kaitan
dengan dengan preferensi likuiditas (<i>liquidity
preference</i>)<o:p></o:p></span></div>
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<span lang="EN-US" style="font-size: 12.0pt; line-height: 115%; mso-ansi-language: EN-US; mso-bidi-font-size: 11.0pt;">Tingkat
bunga menurut Keynes bukanlah pencerminan dari penawaran tabungan dan
permintaan investasi, melainkan tingkat bunga merupakan variabel bebas (<i>independent</i>) dari kedua hal tersebut.
Tingkat tabungan adalah suatu fenomena moneter yang tergantung dari keinginan
orang menahan tabungannya dalam bentuk dana likuiditas. Sehingga tingkat bunga
tergantung dari preferensi likuiditas. (Akan dijelaskan lebih lanjut di poin
nomor 4)<o:p></o:p></span></div>
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<br /></div>
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<!--[if !supportLists]--><span lang="EN-US" style="font-family: Symbol; font-size: 12.0pt; line-height: 115%; mso-ansi-language: EN-US; mso-bidi-font-family: Symbol; mso-bidi-font-size: 11.0pt; mso-fareast-font-family: Symbol;">·<span style="font-family: 'Times New Roman'; font-size: 7pt; line-height: normal;">
</span></span><!--[endif]--><span lang="EN-US" style="font-size: 12.0pt; line-height: 115%; mso-ansi-language: EN-US; mso-bidi-font-size: 11.0pt;">Efisiensi
marginal dari investasi modal (<i>marginal
efficiency of capital</i>)<o:p></o:p></span></div>
<div class="MsoListParagraphCxSpLast" style="margin-left: 14.2pt; mso-add-space: auto; text-align: justify; text-indent: 14.15pt;">
<span lang="EN-US" style="font-size: 12.0pt; line-height: 115%; mso-ansi-language: EN-US; mso-bidi-font-size: 11.0pt;">Tingkat
investasi ditentukan oleh efisiensi marginal dari investasi modal, yang
dipengaruhi oleh ekspektasi investor tentang laba yang akan diperoleh di masa
depan dari investasi modal yang bersangkutan. Jelaslah bahwa ekspektasi
tersebut adalah yang positif dan menguntungkan investor itu.<o:p></o:p></span></div>
<div class="MsoNormal" style="text-align: justify;">
<br /></div>
<div class="MsoListParagraph" style="margin-left: 14.2pt; mso-add-space: auto; mso-list: l0 level1 lfo1; text-align: justify; text-indent: -14.7pt;">
<!--[if !supportLists]--><b><span lang="EN-US" style="font-size: 12.0pt; line-height: 115%; mso-ansi-language: EN-US; mso-bidi-font-family: Calibri; mso-bidi-font-size: 11.0pt; mso-bidi-theme-font: minor-latin;">5.<span style="font-size: 7pt; font-weight: normal; line-height: normal;">
</span></span></b><!--[endif]--><b><span lang="EN-US" style="font-size: 12.0pt; line-height: 115%; mso-ansi-language: EN-US; mso-bidi-font-size: 11.0pt;">Preferensi Likuiditas (<i>Liquidity Preference</i>)<i><o:p></o:p></i></span></b></div>
<div class="MsoNormal" style="text-align: justify; text-indent: 1.0cm;">
<span lang="EN-US" style="font-size: 12.0pt; line-height: 115%; mso-ansi-language: EN-US; mso-bidi-font-size: 11.0pt;">Pada saat masa aliran monetarisme, timbul pertanyaan
mengenai <i>demand for money</i> dan <i>supply of money</i>. Pertanyaan ini dijawab
oleh Keynes dengan teorinya, <i>liqudity
preference</i>, yang menjelaskan tentang bagaimana tingkat bunga ditentukan
dalam jangka pendek dan tingkat bunga tersebut disesuaikan untuk menyeimbangkan
<i>demand for money</i> dan <i>supply of money</i>.<o:p></o:p></span></div>
<div class="MsoNormal" style="text-align: justify; text-indent: 1.0cm;">
<span lang="EN-US" style="font-size: 12.0pt; line-height: 115%; mso-ansi-language: EN-US; mso-bidi-font-size: 11.0pt;">Teori ini menegaskan bahwa tingkat bunga adalah salah
satu determinan dari berapa banyak uang yang ingin dipegang orang, alasannya
karena tingkat bunga merupakan <i>opportunity
cost</i> dari memegang uang. Ada tiga motif orang yang memegang uang: Motif
transaksi, motif berjaga-jaga, dan motif spekulasi.<o:p></o:p></span></div>
<div class="MsoNormal" style="text-align: justify;">
<br /></div>
<div class="MsoListParagraph" style="margin-left: 14.2pt; mso-add-space: auto; mso-list: l0 level1 lfo1; text-align: justify; text-indent: -14.7pt;">
<!--[if !supportLists]--><b><span lang="EN-US" style="font-size: 12.0pt; line-height: 115%; mso-ansi-language: EN-US; mso-bidi-font-family: Calibri; mso-bidi-font-size: 11.0pt; mso-bidi-theme-font: minor-latin;">6.<span style="font-size: 7pt; font-weight: normal; line-height: normal;">
</span></span></b><!--[endif]--><b><span lang="EN-US" style="font-size: 12.0pt; line-height: 115%; mso-ansi-language: EN-US; mso-bidi-font-size: 11.0pt;">Tentang Upah<i><o:p></o:p></i></span></b></div>
<div class="MsoNormal" style="text-align: justify; text-indent: 1.0cm;">
<span lang="EN-US" style="font-size: 12.0pt; line-height: 115%; mso-ansi-language: EN-US; mso-bidi-font-size: 11.0pt;">Kaum klasik mengatakan bahwa pengangguran tinggi
karena upah yang kaku (<i>wage rigidity</i>),
yang disebababkan oleh adanya aturan upah minimum (<i>minimum wage</i>), kontrak kerja, dan serikat pekerja (<i>labor union</i>).<o:p></o:p></span></div>
<div class="MsoNormal" style="text-align: justify; text-indent: 1.0cm;">
<span lang="EN-US" style="font-size: 12.0pt; line-height: 115%; mso-ansi-language: EN-US; mso-bidi-font-size: 11.0pt;">Keynes menolak semua pendapat klasik yang di atas.
Keynes berpendapat bahwa upah nominal lah yang mengikat pekerja dan menyebabkan
pengangguran. Sehingga untuk menurunkan pengangguran, solusinya adalah
menurunkan upah riil dengan cara menurunkan upah nominal lebih besar dari
tingkat inflasi.<o:p></o:p></span></div>
<div class="MsoNormal" style="text-align: justify;">
<br /></div>
<div class="MsoListParagraph" style="margin-left: 14.2pt; mso-add-space: auto; mso-list: l0 level1 lfo1; text-align: justify; text-indent: -14.7pt;">
<!--[if !supportLists]--><b><span lang="EN-US" style="font-size: 12.0pt; line-height: 115%; mso-ansi-language: EN-US; mso-bidi-font-family: Calibri; mso-bidi-font-size: 11.0pt; mso-bidi-theme-font: minor-latin;">7.<span style="font-size: 7pt; font-weight: normal; line-height: normal;">
</span></span></b><!--[endif]--><b><span lang="EN-US" style="font-size: 12.0pt; line-height: 115%; mso-ansi-language: EN-US; mso-bidi-font-size: 11.0pt;">Tentang Tabungan (<i>Saving</i>)<i><o:p></o:p></i></span></b></div>
<div class="MsoNormal" style="margin-left: -.5pt; text-align: justify; text-indent: 28.85pt;">
<span lang="EN-US" style="font-size: 12.0pt; line-height: 115%; mso-ansi-language: EN-US; mso-bidi-font-size: 11.0pt;">Menurut Keynes, tingkat <i>saving</i> harus lebih tinggi dari <i>plan investmen</i>. Tapi juga tidak baik
kalau tingkat saving-nya itu berlebihan, karena akan berdampak pada terjadinya
resesi perekonomian bahkan terjadi depresi.<b><i><o:p></o:p></i></b></span></div>
<div class="MsoNormal" style="text-align: justify;">
<br /></div>
<div class="MsoNormal" style="text-align: justify;">
<br /></div>
<div class="MsoNormal" style="text-align: justify;">
<br /></div>
<div class="MsoNormal" style="text-align: justify;">
<b><u><span lang="EN-US" style="font-size: 14.0pt; line-height: 115%; mso-ansi-language: EN-US; mso-bidi-font-size: 11.0pt;">Daftar Pustaka<o:p></o:p></span></u></b></div>
<div class="MsoNormal" style="text-align: justify;">
<br /></div>
<div class="MsoNormal" style="margin-left: 36.0pt; text-align: justify; text-indent: -36.0pt;">
<span lang="EN-US" style="font-size: 12.0pt; line-height: 115%; mso-ansi-language: EN-US; mso-bidi-font-size: 11.0pt;">Bahan Mengajar Mata Kuliah <i>Sejarah Pemikiran Ekonomi</i> oleh Muhammad
Ilhamsyah Siregar, S.E.,MA. Fakultas Ekonomi, Universitas Syiah Kuala, Banda
Aceh.<o:p></o:p></span></div>
<div class="MsoNormal" style="margin-left: 36.0pt; text-align: justify; text-indent: -36.0pt;">
<span lang="EN-US" style="font-size: 12.0pt; line-height: 115%; mso-ansi-language: EN-US; mso-bidi-font-size: 11.0pt;">Deliarnov. 2010. <i>Perkembangan Pemikiran Ekonomi Edisi Ketiga Revisi</i>. Jakarta:
Rajawali Pers<o:p></o:p></span></div>
<div class="MsoNormal" style="margin-left: 36.0pt; text-align: justify; text-indent: -36.0pt;">
<span lang="EN-US" style="font-size: 12.0pt; line-height: 115%; mso-ansi-language: EN-US; mso-bidi-font-size: 11.0pt;">Djojohadikusumo, Sumitro. 1991. <i>Perkembangan Pemikiran Ekonomi Edisi I</i>.
Jakarta: Yayasan Obor Indonesia.<o:p></o:p></span></div>
<div class="MsoNormal" style="margin-left: 36.0pt; text-align: justify; text-indent: -36.0pt;">
<span lang="EN-US" style="font-size: 12.0pt; line-height: 115%; mso-ansi-language: EN-US; mso-bidi-font-size: 11.0pt;">Mankiw, N. Gregory. 2006. <i>Makroekonomi Edisi Keenam</i>. Jakarta:
Erlangga<o:p></o:p></span></div>
Teuku Bahran Basyiranhttp://www.blogger.com/profile/10525417589204464156noreply@blogger.com1tag:blogger.com,1999:blog-3600626824018511994.post-26838710527777128672012-08-22T18:59:00.000+02:002018-06-26T16:48:53.282+02:00Kaitan Ide & Konsep antara Mazhab Klasik dan Mazhab Neo-klasik, serta Peranan Keynes di antara Dua Mazhab Tersebut<!-- Global site tag (gtag.js) - Google Analytics -->
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<i style="font-size: 18.88888931274414px; line-height: 21.111112594604492px; text-align: justify;">Oleh: T. Bahran Basyiran</i>
<br />
<br />
<div class="MsoNormal" style="text-align: justify; text-indent: 1.0cm;">
<span style="font-size: 12pt; line-height: 115%; text-indent: 1cm;">Beberapa kaitan ide atau pemikiran dan konsep antara
mazhab klasik dan neo-klasik adalah sebagai berikut :</span></div>
<div class="MsoNormal" style="text-align: justify;">
<br /></div>
<div class="MsoListParagraph" style="margin-left: 14.2pt; mso-add-space: auto; mso-list: l1 level1 lfo1; text-align: justify; text-indent: -14.7pt;">
<!--[if !supportLists]--><b><span lang="EN-US" style="font-size: 12.0pt; line-height: 115%; mso-ansi-language: EN-US; mso-bidi-font-family: Calibri; mso-bidi-font-size: 11.0pt; mso-bidi-theme-font: minor-latin;">1.<span style="font-size: 7pt; font-weight: normal; line-height: normal;">
</span></span></b><!--[endif]--><b><span lang="EN-US" style="font-size: 12.0pt; line-height: 115%; mso-ansi-language: EN-US; mso-bidi-font-size: 11.0pt;">Konsep Teori Harga<o:p></o:p></span></b></div>
<div class="MsoNormal" style="margin-left: -.5pt; text-align: justify; text-indent: 28.85pt;">
<span lang="EN-US" style="font-size: 12.0pt; line-height: 115%; mso-ansi-language: EN-US; mso-bidi-font-size: 11.0pt;">Menurut kaum klasik, harga barang
ditentukan oleh besarnya pengorbanan untuk menghasilkan barang tersebut. Dengan
demikian, bagi kaum klasik yang menentukan harga adalah sisi penawaran.<o:p></o:p></span></div>
<div class="MsoNormal" style="margin-left: -.5pt; text-align: justify; text-indent: 28.85pt;">
<span lang="EN-US" style="font-size: 12.0pt; line-height: 115%; mso-ansi-language: EN-US; mso-bidi-font-size: 11.0pt;">Pendapat dari kaum klasik di atas,
ditentang oleh tokoh-tokoh neo-klasik melalui Stanley Jevons, Carl Menger, dan Leon
Walras. Mereka sepakat bahwa yang menentukan harga adalah kondisi permintaan. Mereka
bertiga secara bersama-sama telah mengembangkan analisis yang sifatnya
revolusioner tentang faktor-faktor yang menentukan harga-harga relatif.<o:p></o:p></span></div>
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<br /></div>
<div class="MsoListParagraph" style="margin-left: 14.2pt; mso-add-space: auto; mso-list: l1 level1 lfo1; text-align: justify; text-indent: -14.7pt;">
<!--[if !supportLists]--><b><span lang="EN-US" style="font-size: 12.0pt; line-height: 115%; mso-ansi-language: EN-US; mso-bidi-font-family: Calibri; mso-bidi-font-size: 11.0pt; mso-bidi-theme-font: minor-latin;">2.<span style="font-size: 7pt; font-weight: normal; line-height: normal;">
</span></span></b><!--[endif]--><b><span lang="EN-US" style="font-size: 12.0pt; line-height: 115%; mso-ansi-language: EN-US; mso-bidi-font-size: 11.0pt;">Teori Nilai Biaya Produksi dan Teori Biaya Produksi<o:p></o:p></span></b></div>
<div class="MsoNormal" style="text-align: justify; text-indent: 1.0cm;">
<span lang="EN-US" style="font-size: 12.0pt; line-height: 115%; mso-ansi-language: EN-US; mso-bidi-font-size: 11.0pt;">Tokoh-tokoh neo-klasik yang disebutkan pada kaitan poin
(1) secara tegas juga tidak setuju dengan teori nilai biaya produksi (<i>cost of production theory of value) </i>dari
kaum klasik yang dikemukakan oleh salah satu tokohnya, karena teori ini dinilai
tidak berlaku secara umum.<o:p></o:p></span></div>
<div class="MsoNormal" style="text-align: justify; text-indent: 1.0cm;">
<span lang="EN-US" style="font-size: 12.0pt; line-height: 115%; mso-ansi-language: EN-US; mso-bidi-font-size: 11.0pt;">Mereka bertiga juga tidak sependapat dengan James Mill
(Mill Senior) dan John Stuart Mill (Mill Junior) dari kaum klasik, tentang
pendapat kedua Mill tersebut atas teori biaya produksinya. Teori yang ditentang
itu mengatakan bahwa harga barang ditentukan oleh biaya-biaya yang diperlukan
untuk menghasilkan barang tersebut. Hal ini bertentangan dengan analisis yang
dilakukan “Trio Neo-klasik”(Jevons, Carl Menger, dan Walras) tersebut tentang
faktor-faktor yang menentukan harga-harga relatif.<o:p></o:p></span></div>
<div class="MsoNormal" style="margin-left: -.5pt; text-align: justify;">
<br /></div>
<div class="MsoListParagraph" style="margin-left: 14.2pt; mso-add-space: auto; mso-list: l1 level1 lfo1; text-align: justify; text-indent: -14.7pt;">
<!--[if !supportLists]--><b><span lang="EN-US" style="font-size: 12.0pt; line-height: 115%; mso-ansi-language: EN-US; mso-bidi-font-family: Calibri; mso-bidi-font-size: 11.0pt; mso-bidi-theme-font: minor-latin;">3.<span style="font-size: 7pt; font-weight: normal; line-height: normal;">
</span></span></b><!--[endif]--><b><span lang="EN-US" style="font-size: 12.0pt; line-height: 115%; mso-ansi-language: EN-US; mso-bidi-font-size: 11.0pt;">Teori Nilai Upah Buruh<o:p></o:p></span></b></div>
<div class="MsoNormal" style="text-align: justify; text-indent: 1.0cm;">
<span lang="EN-US" style="font-size: 12.0pt; line-height: 115%; mso-ansi-language: EN-US; mso-bidi-font-size: 11.0pt;">Masih ketiga tokoh neo-klasik yang sama seperti dua
poin kaitan di atas, mereka secara tegas juga mengkritik teori nilai upah buruh
(<i>labor theory of value</i>) oleh David
Ricardo dari kaum klasik, yang menyimpulkan bahwa yang paling menentukan
tingkat harga adalah tingkat upah alami yang besarnya hanya cukup untuk buruh
bertahan hidup saja. <o:p></o:p></span></div>
<div class="MsoNormal" style="text-align: justify; text-indent: 1.0cm;">
<span lang="EN-US" style="font-size: 12.0pt; line-height: 115%; mso-ansi-language: EN-US; mso-bidi-font-size: 11.0pt;">Jadi, bertentangan dengan pendapat “trio neo-klasik”
mengenai faktor-faktor kondisi permintaan itu sendiri yang menentukan
harga-harga relatif, bukan dikarenakan upah alami buruh seperti dikatakan
Ricardo.<o:p></o:p></span></div>
<div class="MsoNormal" style="text-align: justify;">
<br /></div>
<div class="MsoListParagraph" style="margin-left: 14.2pt; mso-add-space: auto; mso-list: l1 level1 lfo1; text-align: justify; text-indent: -14.7pt;">
<!--[if !supportLists]--><b><span lang="EN-US" style="font-size: 12.0pt; line-height: 115%; mso-ansi-language: EN-US; mso-bidi-font-family: Calibri; mso-bidi-font-size: 11.0pt; mso-bidi-theme-font: minor-latin;"></span></b><br />
<a name='more'></a><b><span lang="EN-US" style="font-size: 12.0pt; line-height: 115%; mso-ansi-language: EN-US; mso-bidi-font-family: Calibri; mso-bidi-font-size: 11.0pt; mso-bidi-theme-font: minor-latin;">4.<span style="font-size: 7pt; font-weight: normal; line-height: normal;">
</span></span></b><!--[endif]--><b><span lang="EN-US" style="font-size: 12.0pt; line-height: 115%; mso-ansi-language: EN-US; mso-bidi-font-size: 11.0pt;">Konsep Utilitas (Total, Marginal, dan Rata-rata)<o:p></o:p></span></b></div>
<div class="MsoNormal" style="margin-left: -.5pt; text-align: justify; text-indent: 28.85pt;">
<span lang="EN-US" style="font-size: 12.0pt; line-height: 115%; mso-ansi-language: EN-US; mso-bidi-font-size: 11.0pt;">Pakar-pakar neo-klasik di atas,
Jevons-Menger-Walras, lebih jauh mengkritik tokoh kaum klasik yang gagal
membedakan antara utilitas total (<i>total
utility</i>), utilitas marginal (<i>marginal
utility</i>), dan utilitas rata-rata (<i>average
utility</i>), terutama terhadap pandangan Adam Smith. Misalnya dalam
menjelaskan paradoks intan dan air, Smith menjelaskan bahwa air sangat
berfaidah, tetapi mempunyai harga yang rendah dikarenakan biaya yang diperlukan
untuk memperoleh air, rendah atau tidak berbiaya sama sekali. Sebaliknya, masih
menurut Smith, intan yang kurang berfaidah nilainya sangat tinggi karena
dibutuhkan biaya yang besar untuk memperoleh itu. Sedemikian rupa sehingga,
menurut “trio” neo-klasik tersebut, nilai intan lebih tinggi daripada nilai air
bukan seperti karena apa yang dikatakan Smith, melainkan karena <i>marginal utility</i> (utilitas dari konsumsi
satu unit intan terakhir) yang besar. Oleh sebab itu, orang mau menghargai
intan lebih tinggi daripada air.<o:p></o:p></span></div>
<div class="MsoNormal" style="margin-left: -.5pt; text-align: justify; text-indent: 28.85pt;">
<span lang="EN-US" style="font-size: 12.0pt; line-height: 115%; mso-ansi-language: EN-US; mso-bidi-font-size: 11.0pt;">Sehingga memang, bagi
Jevons-Menger-Walras, biaya-biaya bukan satu-satunya faktor yang menentukan
harga-harga, tetapi yang menentukan hal itu (sesuai dengan teori <i>marginal utility</i>) adalah utilitas yang
diterima dari konsumsi satu unit terakhir dari barang tersebut.<o:p></o:p></span></div>
<div class="MsoNormal" style="margin-left: -.5pt; text-align: justify; text-indent: 28.85pt;">
<span lang="EN-US" style="font-size: 12.0pt; line-height: 115%; mso-ansi-language: EN-US; mso-bidi-font-size: 11.0pt;">Jadi, teori yang dikembangkan kaum
marginal (neo-klasik) sangat berbeda dengan teori yang dikembangkan tokoh-tokoh
kaum klasik tentang harga. Kalau kaum klasik melihat harga dari sisi produsen
(jumlah pengorbanan yang dikeluarkan), kaum marginal melihatnya dari sisi
konsumen (kepuasan marginal konsumsi satu unit terakhir).<o:p></o:p></span></div>
<div class="MsoNormal" style="text-align: justify;">
<br /></div>
<div class="MsoListParagraph" style="margin-left: 21.3pt; mso-add-space: auto; mso-list: l0 level1 lfo2; text-align: justify; text-indent: -14.7pt;">
<!--[if !supportLists]--><span lang="EN-US" style="font-family: Symbol; font-size: 12.0pt; line-height: 115%; mso-ansi-language: EN-US; mso-bidi-font-family: Symbol; mso-bidi-font-size: 11.0pt; mso-fareast-font-family: Symbol;">·<span style="font-family: 'Times New Roman'; font-size: 7pt; line-height: normal;">
</span></span><!--[endif]--><b><span lang="EN-US" style="font-size: 12.0pt; line-height: 115%; mso-ansi-language: EN-US; mso-bidi-font-size: 11.0pt;">Pendapat tambahan dari Alfred Marshall (neo-klasik)
tentang hal ini<o:p></o:p></span></b></div>
<div class="MsoNormal" style="text-align: justify; text-indent: 1.0cm;">
<span lang="EN-US" style="font-size: 12.0pt; line-height: 115%; mso-ansi-language: EN-US; mso-bidi-font-size: 11.0pt;">(Perlu diketahui, walaupun Alfred Marshall tidak saya
tuliskan sebagai bagian dari neo-klasik sehigga saya hanya membuat “trio” saja,
padahal sebenarnya Marshall salah satu tokoh neo-klasik yang fenomenal,
sehingga sebenarnya ada empat tokoh besar neo-klasik. Tetapi konsep utilitas
ini juga ikut dijelaskan dan dianalisis oleh Marshall sendiri, jadi dia juga
termasuk dalam bagian kaum marginal (neo-klasik). Saya tidak menguraikan lagi
pendapat Marshall tentang marginal seperti yang diopinikan oleh Jevons-Menger-Walras,
“trio neo-klasik”, sehingga saya hanya membuat tambahan pendapat dia saja).<o:p></o:p></span></div>
<div class="MsoNormal" style="text-align: justify; text-indent: 1.0cm;">
<span lang="EN-US" style="font-size: 12.0pt; line-height: 115%; mso-ansi-language: EN-US; mso-bidi-font-size: 11.0pt;">Marshall tidak menyalahkan konsep dari kaum klasik
maupun “trio” neo-klasik, tetapi menggabungnya. Menurut dia, selain oleh biaya,
harga juga dipengaruhi oleh unsur subjektif lainnya, baik dari pihak konsumen
maupun produsen. Misalnya pendapatan (daya beli). Dari pihak produsen mungkin
keadaan keuangan perusahaan, di mana kalau keuangannya sedang dalam keadaan
sulit, kemungkinan perusahaan mau menerima harga yang rendah (misalnya). Tetapi
kalau keadaan keuangan cukup kuat, mereka juga akan lebih berani dalam
mempertahankan harga.<o:p></o:p></span></div>
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<br /></div>
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<!--[if !supportLists]--><b><span lang="EN-US" style="font-size: 12.0pt; line-height: 115%; mso-ansi-language: EN-US; mso-bidi-font-family: Calibri; mso-bidi-font-size: 11.0pt; mso-bidi-theme-font: minor-latin;">5.<span style="font-size: 7pt; font-weight: normal; line-height: normal;">
</span></span></b><!--[endif]--><b><span lang="EN-US" style="font-size: 12.0pt; line-height: 115%; mso-ansi-language: EN-US; mso-bidi-font-size: 11.0pt;">Konsep Penawaran dan Permintaan<o:p></o:p></span></b></div>
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<span lang="EN-US" style="font-size: 12.0pt; line-height: 115%; mso-ansi-language: EN-US; mso-bidi-font-size: 11.0pt;">Konsep ini pertama sekali dijelaskan oleh kaum klasik
melalui salah satu tokohnya, Jean Baptiste Say, yang mengatakan bahwa setiap
penawaran akan menciptakan permintaannya sendiri (<i>supply creates its own demand</i>), di mana setiap ada produksi akan
ada pendapatan yang persis sama dengan nilai produksi tadi, sehingga dalam
keadaan seimbang produksi cenderung menciptakan permintaannya sendiri terhadap
produksi barang yang bersangkutan.<o:p></o:p></span></div>
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<span lang="EN-US" style="font-size: 12.0pt; line-height: 115%; mso-ansi-language: EN-US; mso-bidi-font-size: 11.0pt;">Marshall sebagai kaum neo-klasik barangkali mengkonsumsi
pandangan klasik di atas untuk selanjutnya menjelaskan tentang konsep harga.
Dia mengatakan bahwa harga terbentuk sebagai integrasi dua kekuatan di pasar:
penawaran dari pihak produsen dan permintaan dari pihak konsumen. Integrasi
kedua kekuatan tersebutlah yang menentukan harga di pasar, bukan produsen saja
atau konsumen saja, tapi kedua-duanya. Kalau permintaan dan penawaran
diibaratkan dengan dua sisi mata gunting, maka yang memotong kertas bukanlah
sisi gunting sebelah atas atau sebelah
bawah, tapi hasil penjepitan kedua mata gunting secara simultan.<o:p></o:p></span></div>
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<b><span lang="EN-US" style="font-size: 12.0pt; line-height: 115%; mso-ansi-language: EN-US; mso-bidi-font-size: 11.0pt;">Kaitan serta Peranan Keynes di antara
ide-ide dan konsep-konsep dari mazhab klasik dan neo-klasik di atas adalah:<o:p></o:p></span></b></div>
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<span lang="EN-US" style="font-size: 12.0pt; line-height: 115%; mso-ansi-language: EN-US; mso-bidi-font-size: 11.0pt;">Dalam menghadapi persoalan ekonomi yang mahadahsyat
(terjadi krisis dan sistem kapitalis jatuh), teori-teori ekonomi yang dikembangkan oleh pakar-pakar klasik maupun
neo-klasik tidak mampu menjelaskan fenomena dan peristiwa yang sesungguhnya
terjadi. Sejak terjadinya depresi besaran-besaran tersebut, orang curiga bahwa
ada sesuatu yang salah dengan teori klasik dan neo-klasik yang dianggap berlaku
umum selama ini. Dalam situasi tidak menentu inilah lahir seorang tokoh ekonomi
yang kemudian menjadi sangat berpengaruh, yaitu John Maynard Keynes.<o:p></o:p></span></div>
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<span lang="EN-US" style="font-size: 12.0pt; line-height: 115%; mso-ansi-language: EN-US; mso-bidi-font-size: 11.0pt;">Karya tulis atau buku Keynes yang paling populer
adalah <i>The General Theory of Employment,
Interest, and Money</i>. Buku ini ditulis
sebagai reaksi terhadap depresi besar-besaran yang terjadi tahun 1930-an
yang tidak berhasil dipecahkan dengan metode klasik dan neo-klasik.<o:p></o:p></span></div>
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<span lang="EN-US" style="font-size: 12.0pt; line-height: 115%; mso-ansi-language: EN-US; mso-bidi-font-size: 11.0pt;">Teori klasik dinilai Keynes mengandung banyak
kelemahan, sehingga perlu diperbaiki dan disempurnakan, seperti masalah
mekanisme pasar, keseimbangan pasar, ketenagakerjaan, analisis biaya, tabungan
& investasi, dan juga kritikan yang habis-habisan oleh Keynes terhadap
tokoh klasik, J. B. Say tentang teorinya “penawaran akan menciptakan
permintaannya sendiri”. <o:p></o:p></span></div>
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<span lang="EN-US" style="font-size: 12.0pt; line-height: 115%; mso-ansi-language: EN-US; mso-bidi-font-size: 11.0pt;">Sedangkan terhadap teori-teori neo-klasik, Keynes
tidak terlalu banyak menemukan banyak kelemahan, akan tetapi juga tetap Keynes
melakukan hal yang sama seperti terhadap klasik, yaitu melakukan penyempurnaan
teorinya agar lebih sesuai dengan kondisi ekonomi saat sekarang (pada saat
itu-red). Juga dikarenakan Keynes merupakan salah satu murid brilliannya
Marshall, yang notabenenya merupakan kaum neo-klasik. Sehingga sudah pasti
karya-karya Marshall banyak diakui oleh Keynes. Mungkin hampir sebagian besar
konsep-konsep Marshall diperbaiki dan disempurnakan oleh Keynes. Hal ini
menunjukkan adanya peranan Keynes dalam menjelaskan secara lebih lanjut dan lebih disempurnakan ide dan konsep yang
telah ada, punyanya tokoh mazhab neo-klasik.<o:p></o:p></span></div>
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<br /></div>
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<b><u><span lang="EN-US" style="font-size: 14.0pt; line-height: 115%; mso-ansi-language: EN-US; mso-bidi-font-size: 11.0pt;">Kesimpulan<o:p></o:p></span></u></b></div>
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<span lang="EN-US" style="font-size: 12.0pt; line-height: 115%; mso-ansi-language: EN-US; mso-bidi-font-size: 11.0pt;">Karena dalam kenyataannya, pasar tidak bekerja sesuai
asumsi pasar sempurna, teori-teori dan konsep-konsep ekonomi yang dikembangkan
kaum klasik mendapat kritikan yang tajam
dari aliran-aliran ekonomi alin. Yang paling gencar menyerang teori-teori
klasik adalah Keynes dan pengikut-pengikutnya.<o:p></o:p></span></div>
<div class="MsoNormal" style="text-align: justify; text-indent: 1.0cm;">
<span lang="EN-US" style="font-size: 12.0pt; line-height: 115%; mso-ansi-language: EN-US; mso-bidi-font-size: 11.0pt;">Sejak terjadinya depresi besaran-besaran pada tahun
1930-an, orang curiga bahwa ada sesuatu yang salah dengan teori klasik dan
neo-klasik yang dianggap berlaku umum selama ini. Dalam situasi tidak menentu
inilah lahir seorang tokoh ekonomi yang kemudian menjadi sangat berpengaruh dan
menyelamatkan dunia pada saat itu, yaitu John Maynard Keynes. Dia melakukannya
dengan cara memperbaiki dan meyempurnakan ide dan konsep-konsep klasik dan
neo-klasik yang sudah ada sebelumnya, walaupun juga ada ide dan konsep baru
yang ia temukan sendiri.<o:p></o:p></span></div>
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<span lang="EN-US" style="font-size: 12.0pt; line-height: 115%; mso-ansi-language: EN-US; mso-bidi-font-size: 11.0pt;">Pada intinya, klasik, neo-klasik, dan Keynes memang
memiliki keterkaitan yang sangat erat dalam kemajuan ide/pemikiran dan konsep
ekonomi yang terus tersempurnakan seiring dengan berjalannya zaman.<o:p></o:p></span></div>
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<b><u><span lang="EN-US" style="font-size: 14.0pt; line-height: 115%; mso-ansi-language: EN-US; mso-bidi-font-size: 11.0pt;">Daftar Pustaka<o:p></o:p></span></u></b></div>
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<br /></div>
<div class="MsoNormal" style="margin-left: 36.0pt; text-align: justify; text-indent: -36.0pt;">
<span lang="EN-US" style="font-size: 12.0pt; line-height: 115%; mso-ansi-language: EN-US; mso-bidi-font-size: 11.0pt;">Bahan Mengajar Mata Kuliah <i>Sejarah Pemikiran Ekonomi</i> oleh
Fakhruddin, S.E.,M.S.E. Fakultas Ekonomi, Universitas Syiah Kuala, Banda Aceh.<o:p></o:p></span></div>
<div class="MsoNormal" style="margin-left: 36.0pt; text-align: justify; text-indent: -36.0pt;">
<span lang="EN-US" style="font-size: 12.0pt; line-height: 115%; mso-ansi-language: EN-US; mso-bidi-font-size: 11.0pt;">Deliarnov. 2010. <i>Perkembangan Pemikiran Ekonomi Edisi Ketiga Revisi</i>. Jakarta:
Rajawali Pers<o:p></o:p></span></div>
<div class="MsoNormal" style="margin-left: 36.0pt; text-align: justify; text-indent: -36.0pt;">
<span lang="EN-US" style="font-size: 12.0pt; line-height: 115%; mso-ansi-language: EN-US; mso-bidi-font-size: 11.0pt;">Djojohadikusumo, Sumitro. 1991. <i>Perkembangan Pemikiran Ekonomi Edisi I</i>.
Jakarta: Yayasan Obor Indonesia.<o:p></o:p></span></div>
Teuku Bahran Basyiranhttp://www.blogger.com/profile/10525417589204464156noreply@blogger.com0tag:blogger.com,1999:blog-3600626824018511994.post-85183948204543172172012-07-31T21:19:00.000+02:002012-07-31T21:29:42.472+02:00Kaitan Ide/Pemikiran & Konsep antara Merkantilisme dan Mazhab Klasik<br />
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<span lang="EN-US" style="line-height: 115%;"><i><b><span style="font-family: Georgia, 'Times New Roman', serif;">Oleh: T. Bahran Basyiran</span></b></i></span></div>
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<span lang="EN-US" style="font-size: 12pt; line-height: 115%;">Beberapa kaitan ide atau pemikiran dan konsep antara era merkantilisme
dan mazhab klasik adalah sebagai berikut :<o:p></o:p></span></div>
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<b><span lang="EN-US" style="font-size: 12pt; line-height: 115%;">1.<span style="font-size: 7pt; font-weight: normal; line-height: normal;">
</span></span></b><b><span lang="EN-US" style="font-size: 12pt; line-height: 115%;">Literatur Ide dan Konsep Ekonomi<o:p></o:p></span></b></div>
<div class="MsoNormal" style="text-align: justify; text-indent: 1.0cm;">
<span lang="EN-US" style="font-size: 12pt; line-height: 115%;">Suatu hal yang pantas dicatat selama era merkantilisme
ialah tidak hanya perdagangan dan perekonomian yang maju pesat, perkembangan
literatur juga meningkat pesat sekali. Kemajuan dalam tulisan-tulisan ekonomi
maju dan baik dalam jumlah maupun mutu. Masa merkantilisme ditandai sebagai
periode masing-masing orang menjadi ahli ekonomi bagi dirinya sendiri. Setiap
orang mempunyai pendapat sendiri-sendiri, dan sayangnya sangat sulit
digeneralisasi. Hal ini mungkin disebabkan kebanyakan penulis tidak berlatar
belakang universitas, tetapi para pedagang yang menulis persoalan-persoalan
ekonomi yang berhubungan dengan bisnis mereka. Sehingga orang-orang menganggap
tulisan-tulisan mereka tersebut “berserakan”. Akan tetapi, dari tulisan-tulisan
mereka inilah yang selanjutnya Adam Smith, kaum klasik, memperoleh banyak
sumber untuk menulis bukunya dan tulisan-tulisannya. <o:p></o:p></span></div>
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<span lang="EN-US" style="font-size: 12pt; line-height: 115%;">Otomatis, literatur ide dan konsep kaum merkantilis
yang “berserakan“ tersebut menjadi salah satu sumber dan pokok ide literatur
yang digunakan kaum klasik untuk
menjelaskan konsepnya. Jadi memang ide dan konsep kaum klasik tidak
terlepas dari punyanya kaum merkantilis.<b><o:p></o:p></b></span></div>
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<br /></div>
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<b><span lang="EN-US" style="font-size: 12pt; line-height: 115%;">2.<span style="font-size: 7pt; font-weight: normal; line-height: normal;">
</span></span></b><b><span lang="EN-US" style="font-size: 12pt; line-height: 115%;">Posisi Makna Konsep Individualisme dan Peranan
Pemerintah<o:p></o:p></span></b></div>
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<span lang="EN-US" style="font-size: 12pt; line-height: 115%;">Di era merkantilisme, negara ditempatkan sangat tinggi
di atas individu-individu, dengan kata lain, pemerintah pada masa merkantilis
mempunyai peranan penting dalam menetapkan kebijakan pada setiap individu
(notabene individunya merupakan saudagar). Sebaliknya, menurut Adam Smith
(ajaran klasik), kepentingan individulah yang mesti diutamakan. Bahkan tugas
negaralah untuk menjamin terciptanya kondisi bagi setiap orang untuk bebas
bertindak melakukan yang terbaik bagi diri mereka masing-masing. Mencegah
monopoli, mempertahankan negara, menjaga ketertiban internal, dan mengatur
barang publik bereksternalitas tinggi, itu semua juga merupakan peran
pemerintah menurut Smith.<o:p></o:p></span></div>
<div class="MsoNormal" style="text-align: justify; text-indent: 1.0cm;">
<span lang="EN-US" style="font-size: 12pt; line-height: 115%;">Jadi, menurut saya ini juga merupakan kaitan antara
merkantilisme dan klasik, walaupun keterkaitannya yang berlawanan arah,
merkantilis mengatakan peran pemerintah itu vital sedangkan klasik mengatakan
tidak perlu adanya campur tangan pemerintah. Disini yang lebih awal muncul
menjadi sumber yang setelahnya untuk membuat konsep yang baru. Sehingga hal
tersebut tetap saja dapat disebut adanya kaitan.<o:p></o:p></span></div>
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<br /></div>
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<b><span lang="EN-US" style="font-size: 12pt; line-height: 115%;"></span></b></div>
<a name='more'></a><b>3.<span style="font-size: 7pt; font-weight: normal; line-height: normal;">
</span></b><b><span lang="EN-US" style="font-size: 12pt; line-height: 115%;">Keharmonisan David Hume dari Merkantilisme dengan Adam
Smith dari Mazhab Klasik<o:p></o:p></span></b><br />
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<span lang="EN-US" style="font-size: 12pt; line-height: 115%;">David Hume dan Adam Smith dikenal sebagai kawanan
dekat. Hume dan Smith sering mendiskusikan pandangannya masing-masing
bersama-sama, sehingga jelas hal ini akan mempengaruhi jalan pikiran
masing-masing. <o:p></o:p></span></div>
<div class="MsoNormal" style="text-align: justify; text-indent: 1.0cm;">
<span lang="EN-US" style="font-size: 12pt; line-height: 115%;">Jika dilihat dari apa yang dikatakan Deliarnov di
bukunya di atas, dapat saya simpulkan hal tersebut dapat merupakan sebuah
kaitan yang sangat erat antara merkantilisme dan klasik, di mana salah satu
dari pemerannya sering berdiskusi bersama-sama tentang pandangannya
masing-masing. Secara tidak langsung, ide dan pemikiran keduanya berkontribusi
besar terhadap konsep pemikiran ekonomi pada era dan mazhabnya masing-masing.<o:p></o:p></span></div>
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<br /></div>
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<b><span lang="EN-US" style="font-size: 12pt; line-height: 115%;">4.<span style="font-size: 7pt; font-weight: normal; line-height: normal;">
</span></span></b><b><span lang="EN-US" style="font-size: 12pt; line-height: 115%;">Monopoli Pasar<o:p></o:p></span></b></div>
<div class="MsoNormal" style="margin-left: -.5pt; text-align: justify; text-indent: 28.85pt;">
<span lang="EN-US" style="font-size: 12pt; line-height: 115%;">Pada era merkantilisme yang mana
telah diketahui vitalnya posisi peranan pemerintah, dalam hal ini, kebebasan
melakukan monopoli pasar yang disertai proteksi dan keistimewaan-keistimewaan
lainnya merupakan salah satu kebijakan pemerintah kepada individu di era
tersebut (kaum saudagar). Sehingga kaum saudagarlah yang memegang kendali
perekonomian.<o:p></o:p></span></div>
<div class="MsoNormal" style="margin-left: -.5pt; text-align: justify; text-indent: 28.85pt;">
<span lang="EN-US" style="font-size: 12pt; line-height: 115%;">Sedangkan Adam Smith, yang berasal
dari mazhab klasik, mengkritik pandangan merkantilis di atas. Kata dia,
monopoli pasar akan berdampak negatif terhadap kondisi ekonomi, yaitu:<o:p></o:p></span></div>
<div class="MsoListParagraphCxSpFirst" style="margin-left: 1.0cm; mso-add-space: auto; mso-list: l0 level1 lfo2; text-align: justify; text-indent: -14.15pt;">
<span lang="EN-US" style="font-family: Symbol; font-size: 12pt; line-height: 115%;">·<span style="font-family: 'Times New Roman'; font-size: 7pt; line-height: normal;">
</span></span><span lang="EN-US" style="font-size: 12pt; line-height: 115%;">Akan
membuat harga tinggi dan perekonomian memburuk<o:p></o:p></span></div>
<div class="MsoListParagraphCxSpMiddle" style="margin-left: 1.0cm; mso-add-space: auto; mso-list: l0 level1 lfo2; text-align: justify; text-indent: -14.15pt;">
<span lang="EN-US" style="font-family: Symbol; font-size: 12pt; line-height: 115%;">·<span style="font-family: 'Times New Roman'; font-size: 7pt; line-height: normal;">
</span></span><span lang="EN-US" style="font-size: 12pt; line-height: 115%;">Cenderung
merusak sebuah manajemen yang baik<o:p></o:p></span></div>
<div class="MsoListParagraphCxSpMiddle" style="margin-left: 1.0cm; mso-add-space: auto; mso-list: l0 level1 lfo2; text-align: justify; text-indent: -14.15pt;">
<span lang="EN-US" style="font-family: Symbol; font-size: 12pt; line-height: 115%;">·<span style="font-family: 'Times New Roman'; font-size: 7pt; line-height: normal;">
</span></span><span lang="EN-US" style="font-size: 12pt; line-height: 115%;">Membuat
kebijakan pemerintah menjadi kurang baik dan tepat<o:p></o:p></span></div>
<div class="MsoListParagraphCxSpLast" style="margin-left: 1.0cm; mso-add-space: auto; mso-list: l0 level1 lfo2; text-align: justify; text-indent: -14.15pt;">
<span lang="EN-US" style="font-family: Symbol; font-size: 12pt; line-height: 115%;">·<span style="font-family: 'Times New Roman'; font-size: 7pt; line-height: normal;">
</span></span><span lang="EN-US" style="font-size: 12pt; line-height: 115%;">Menimbulkan
misalokasi sumberdaya<o:p></o:p></span></div>
<div class="MsoNormal" style="text-align: justify; text-indent: 1.0cm;">
<span lang="EN-US" style="font-size: 12pt; line-height: 115%;">Sama seperti kaitan poin kedua tentang konsep
individualisme dan peran pemerintah, walaupun keterkaitannya berlawanan arah,
tetap saja ini dapat dikatakan sebuah kaitan, karena ide dan konsep yang lebih
awal ada menjadi bahan kritikan pihak setelahnya yang selanjutnya menjadi
sumber untuk membuat ide yang baru. Seperti itulah kira-kira.<o:p></o:p></span></div>
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<br /></div>
<div class="MsoListParagraph" style="margin-left: 14.2pt; mso-add-space: auto; mso-list: l1 level1 lfo1; text-align: justify; text-indent: -14.7pt;">
<b><span lang="EN-US" style="font-size: 12pt; line-height: 115%;">5.<span style="font-size: 7pt; font-weight: normal; line-height: normal;">
</span></span></b><b><i><span lang="EN-US" style="font-size: 12pt; line-height: 115%;">Division of
Labor</span></i></b><b><span lang="EN-US" style="font-size: 12pt; line-height: 115%;"> atau Spesialisasi<o:p></o:p></span></b></div>
<div class="MsoNormal" style="text-align: justify; text-indent: 1.0cm;">
<span lang="EN-US" style="font-size: 12pt; line-height: 115%;">Pandangan Adam Smith, pemeran kaum klasik, mengenai <i>division of labor</i> berkaitan dengan era merkantilisme
yang mana pada zamannya telah membuka jaringan pasar yang luas, orientasi
perdagangan kaum merkantilis ini membuat Smith berpikir bagaimana cara untuk
memaksimalkan efisiensi kegiatan di pasar tersebut, sehingga dalam hal ini
Smith mengatakan perlunya spesialisasi kerja. Yang selanjutnya pandangan ini dimaksudkan
untuk memacu efisiensi kerja, pertumbuhan output dan selanjutnya mengarah ke
pembangunan ekonomi yang lebih baik. <o:p></o:p></span></div>
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<span lang="EN-US" style="font-size: 12pt; line-height: 115%;">Jadi, memang pada kenyataannya, ide teori <i>division of labor</i> Smith ini secara tidak
langsung timbul oleh adanya konsep perdagangan Merkantilisme.<o:p></o:p></span></div>
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<b><span lang="EN-US" style="font-size: 12pt; line-height: 115%;">6.<span style="font-size: 7pt; font-weight: normal; line-height: normal;">
</span></span></b><b><span lang="EN-US" style="font-size: 12pt; line-height: 115%;">Teori Upah<o:p></o:p></span></b></div>
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<span lang="EN-US" style="font-size: 12pt; line-height: 115%;">Merkantilisme melalui ahli ekonomi Oxford University,
Sir William Petty, telah menjelaskan tentang teori ini, di mana Petty
mengatakan bahwa nilai suatu barang ditentukan oleh biaya yang diperlukan untuk
menjaga agar pekerja dapat tetap bekerja. Dengan kata lain, upah ditentukan
oleh kebutuhannya untuk bisa tetap bekerja.<o:p></o:p></span></div>
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<span lang="EN-US" style="font-size: 12pt; line-height: 115%;"> Sedangan mazhab klasik
melalui tokoh utamanya, Adam Smith, mengatakan bahwa keterampilan (<i>skill</i>) pekerja menjadi indikator penting
dalam menentukan besaran upahnya, bahkan tidak juga hanya diukur dari dari
waktu kerjanya saja dan <i>skill </i>inilah
yang juga akan menentukan nilai suatu barang.<o:p></o:p></span></div>
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<b><span lang="EN-US" style="font-size: 12pt; line-height: 115%;">7.<span style="font-size: 7pt; font-weight: normal; line-height: normal;">
</span></span></b><b><span lang="EN-US" style="font-size: 12pt; line-height: 115%;">Teori Perdagangan Internasional<o:p></o:p></span></b></div>
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<span lang="EN-US" style="font-size: 12pt; line-height: 115%;">Teori ini merupakan inti pokok dalam
pandangan merkantilisme, bahwa kemajuan dan kemakmuran negara kebangasaan
bersangkut-paut dengan adanya surplus ekspor barang di atas impor dalam
perdagangan luar negeri (internasional). Surplus yang dimaksud itu bisa
menambah cadangan logam mulia seperti emas, yang dianggap sebagai unsur pokok
kekuatan negara, kemajuan bangsa dan kemakmuran masyarakat.<o:p></o:p></span></div>
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<span lang="EN-US" style="font-size: 12pt; line-height: 115%;"> Mazhab
klasik melalui pemain peran lainnya, David Ricardo, yang menjelaskan teori
perdagangan internasional secara lebih spesifik, yaitu berdasarkan asas
keunggulan komparatif. Di bidang perdagangan
internasional , hal itu menyangkut kemampuan khusus atau keunggulan suatu negara
untuk membuat beberapa jenis barang dan jasa tertentu dengan lebih murah
(tingkat biaya murah) dibandingkan dengan keadaan di mana sumber daya dan
dananya dicurahkan untuk produksi jenis barang dan jasa yang lainnya, dan juga
keunggulan dalam hal produktivitas. Sedemikian rupa sehingga negara tersebut
dapat mewujudkan surplus perdagangan, seperti yang sudah diinginkan sebelumnya
oleh kaum merkantilis. <o:p></o:p></span></div>
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<span lang="EN-US" style="font-size: 12pt; line-height: 115%;">Oleh karena itu, menurut saya, ini
dapat dikatakan sebagai sebuah kaitan ide dan konsep teori perdagangan
internasional.<o:p></o:p></span></div>
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<b><span lang="EN-US" style="font-size: 12pt; line-height: 115%;">8.<span style="font-size: 7pt; font-weight: normal; line-height: normal;">
</span></span></b><b><span lang="EN-US" style="font-size: 12pt; line-height: 115%;">Kebijakan Moneter terhadap Kenaikan Harga (Inflasi)<o:p></o:p></span></b></div>
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<span lang="EN-US" style="font-size: 12pt; line-height: 115%;">Kaum merkantilis yang memang sudah tidak asing dengan
hal yang berhubungan dengan logam mulia (seperti emas), berpendapat bahwa
semakin banyak emas (logam mulia) yang beredar,
tingkat harga akan semakin naik.<o:p></o:p></span></div>
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<span lang="EN-US" style="font-size: 12pt; line-height: 115%;">Hal tersebut pula yang sepertinya menjadi dasar ide
konsep kebijakan moneter yang dikemukakan oleh David Ricardo. Yang berpendapat
sama seperti di atas, sehingga diperlukannya penciptaan mata uang yang terdiri
atas uang kertas, yang dapat mengatasi permasalahan kenaikan harga tersebut.
Cara spesifiknya adalah dengan mengatur uang kertas yang dikeluarkan agar
sesuai dengan lalu lintas keluar-masuknya emas.<o:p></o:p></span></div>
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<b><u><span lang="EN-US" style="font-size: 14pt; line-height: 115%;">Kesimpulan Mini<o:p></o:p></span></u></b></div>
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<span lang="EN-US" style="font-size: 12pt; line-height: 115%;">Jadi, ide dan konsep mazhab klasik memang berasal dari
gagasan-gagasan yang sudah dibahas dan dibicarakan oleh pakar-pakar ekonomi
sebelumnya, hanya selanjutnya dikembangkan dan dikonsepkan dengan konsep yang agak
berbeda dan lebih matang. Dalam hal ini, kaum klasik harus banyak berutang budi
pada pemikir-pemikir dan penulis terdahulu dari masa merkantilisme.<o:p></o:p></span></div>
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<b><u><span lang="EN-US" style="font-size: 14pt; line-height: 115%;">Daftar Pustaka</span></u></b></div>
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<span lang="EN-US" style="font-size: 12pt; line-height: 115%;">Bahan Mengajar Mata Kuliah <i>Sejarah Pemikiran Ekonomi</i> oleh
Fakhruddin, S.E.,M.S.E. Fakultas Ekonomi, Universitas Syiah Kuala, Banda Aceh.<o:p></o:p></span></div>
<div class="MsoNormal" style="margin-left: 36.0pt; text-align: justify; text-indent: -36.0pt;">
<span lang="EN-US" style="font-size: 12pt; line-height: 115%;">Deliarnov. 2010. <i>Perkembangan Pemikiran Ekonomi Edisi Ketiga Revisi</i>. Jakarta:
Rajawali Pers<o:p></o:p></span></div>
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<span lang="EN-US" style="font-size: 12pt; line-height: 115%;">Djojohadikusumo, Sumitro. 1991. <i>Perkembangan Pemikiran Ekonomi Edisi I</i>.
Jakarta: Yayasan Obor Indonesia.<o:p></o:p></span></div>Teuku Bahran Basyiranhttp://www.blogger.com/profile/10525417589204464156noreply@blogger.com0tag:blogger.com,1999:blog-3600626824018511994.post-72990251674068627482012-07-30T00:13:00.000+02:002012-07-30T00:18:59.152+02:00Para Ahli/Penemu Ekonomi di Bidang Ilmu Mikroekonomi<div class="MsoNormal">
<b style="background-color: white;"><span style="background-attachment: scroll; background-color: white; background-image: none; background-position: 0% 0%; background-repeat: repeat repeat; font-size: 16pt; line-height: 115%;">1. Alfred Marshall</span></b></div>
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<span class="longtext"><span lang="EN-US" style="background-attachment: scroll; background-color: white; background-image: none; background-position: 0% 0%; background-repeat: repeat repeat; font-size: 12pt; line-height: 115%;"> </span></span><span class="longtext"><span style="background-attachment: scroll; background-color: white; background-image: none; background-position: 0% 0%; background-repeat: repeat repeat; font-size: 12pt; line-height: 115%;">Alfred Marshall (lahir 26 Juli 1842 di Bermondsey, London, Inggris, meninggal 13 Juli 1924 di Cambridge, Inggris) adalah salah satu ekonom paling berpengaruh pada zamannya. Bukunya, </span></span><span class="longtext"><i><span lang="EN-US" style="background-attachment: scroll; background-color: white; background-image: none; background-position: 0% 0%; background-repeat: repeat repeat; font-size: 12pt; line-height: 115%;">Principle of Economics</span></i></span><span class="longtext"><span style="background-attachment: scroll; background-color: white; background-image: none; background-position: 0% 0%; background-repeat: repeat repeat; font-size: 12pt; line-height: 115%;"> (1890), adalah buku teks ekonomi yang dominan di Inggris selama bertahun-tahun. Ini me</span></span><span class="longtext"><span lang="EN-US" style="background-attachment: scroll; background-color: white; background-image: none; background-position: 0% 0%; background-repeat: repeat repeat; font-size: 12pt; line-height: 115%;">ncetuskan</span></span><span class="longtext"><span style="background-attachment: scroll; background-color: white; background-image: none; background-position: 0% 0%; background-repeat: repeat repeat; font-size: 12pt; line-height: 115%;"> ide-ide </span></span><span class="longtext"><span lang="EN-US" style="background-attachment: scroll; background-color: white; background-image: none; background-position: 0% 0%; background-repeat: repeat repeat; font-size: 12pt; line-height: 115%;">supply</span></span><span class="longtext"><span style="background-attachment: scroll; background-color: white; background-image: none; background-position: 0% 0%; background-repeat: repeat repeat; font-size: 12pt; line-height: 115%;"> dan </span></span><span class="longtext"><span lang="EN-US" style="background-attachment: scroll; background-color: white; background-image: none; background-position: 0% 0%; background-repeat: repeat repeat; font-size: 12pt; line-height: 115%;">demand</span></span><span class="longtext"><span style="background-attachment: scroll; background-color: white; background-image: none; background-position: 0% 0%; background-repeat: repeat repeat; font-size: 12pt; line-height: 115%;">, utilitas marjinal dan biaya produksi menjadi satu kesatuan yang koheren. Dia dikenal sebagai salah satu pendiri ekonomi. </span></span><span style="background-attachment: scroll; background-color: white; background-image: none; background-position: 0% 0%; background-repeat: repeat repeat; font-size: 12pt; line-height: 115%;"><br />
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<span class="longtext"><b><span style="background-attachment: scroll; background-color: white; background-image: none; background-position: 0% 0%; background-repeat: repeat repeat; font-size: 12pt; line-height: 115%;">Karir </span></b></span><b><span lang="EN-US" style="background-attachment: scroll; background-color: white; background-image: none; background-position: 0% 0%; background-repeat: repeat repeat; font-size: 12pt; line-height: 115%;"></span></b></div>
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<b><span lang="EN-US" style="background-attachment: scroll; background-color: white; background-image: none; background-position: 0% 0%; background-repeat: repeat repeat; font-size: 12pt; line-height: 115%;"> </span></b><span class="longtext"><span style="background-attachment: scroll; background-color: white; background-image: none; background-position: 0% 0%; background-repeat: repeat repeat; font-size: 12pt; line-height: 115%;">Marshall lahir di Clapham, Inggris, 26 Juli 1842. </span></span><span class="longtext"><span style="font-size: 12pt; line-height: 115%;">Ayahnya adalah seorang kasir bank dan Injili yang taat. <span style="background-attachment: scroll; background-color: white; background-image: none; background-position: 0% 0%; background-repeat: repeat repeat;">Marshall dibesarkan di pinggiran kota London dari Clapham dan dididik di Sekolah Merchant Taylor, Northwood dan College St John, Cambridge, di mana ia menunjukkan bakat dalam matematika, mencapai </span></span></span><span class="longtext"><span lang="EN-US" style="background-attachment: scroll; background-color: white; background-image: none; background-position: 0% 0%; background-repeat: repeat repeat; font-size: 12pt; line-height: 115%;">rangking </span></span><span class="longtext"><span style="background-attachment: scroll; background-color: white; background-image: none; background-position: 0% 0%; background-repeat: repeat repeat; font-size: 12pt; line-height: 115%;">Kedua di 1865 Cambridge </span></span><span class="longtext"><span lang="EN-US" style="background-attachment: scroll; background-color: white; background-image: none; background-position: 0% 0%; background-repeat: repeat repeat; font-size: 12pt; line-height: 115%;">Mathematical </span></span><span class="longtext"><span style="background-attachment: scroll; background-color: white; background-image: none; background-position: 0% 0%; background-repeat: repeat repeat; font-size: 12pt; line-height: 115%;">Tripos</span></span><span class="longtext"><span lang="EN-US" style="background-attachment: scroll; background-color: white; background-image: none; background-position: 0% 0%; background-repeat: repeat repeat; font-size: 12pt; line-height: 115%;">. </span></span><span class="longtext"><span style="background-attachment: scroll; background-color: white; background-image: none; background-position: 0% 0%; background-repeat: repeat repeat; font-size: 12pt; line-height: 115%;">Marshall mengalami krisis mental yang membuatnya untuk meninggalkan fisika dan beralih ke filsafat. Dia mulai dengan metafisika, khususnya "landasan filosofis pengetahuan, terutama dalam kaitannya dengan teologi"</span></span><span class="longtext"><span lang="EN-US" style="background-attachment: scroll; background-color: white; background-image: none; background-position: 0% 0%; background-repeat: repeat repeat; font-size: 12pt; line-height: 115%;">.</span></span><span class="longtext"><span style="background-attachment: scroll; background-color: white; background-image: none; background-position: 0% 0%; background-repeat: repeat repeat; font-size: 12pt; line-height: 115%;"> Metafisika </span></span><span class="longtext"><span lang="EN-US" style="background-attachment: scroll; background-color: white; background-image: none; background-position: 0% 0%; background-repeat: repeat repeat; font-size: 12pt; line-height: 115%;">menunjukkan</span></span><span class="longtext"><span style="background-attachment: scroll; background-color: white; background-image: none; background-position: 0% 0%; background-repeat: repeat repeat; font-size: 12pt; line-height: 115%;"> Marshall </span></span><span class="longtext"><span lang="EN-US" style="background-attachment: scroll; background-color: white; background-image: none; background-position: 0% 0%; background-repeat: repeat repeat; font-size: 12pt; line-height: 115%;">tentang</span></span><span class="longtext"><span style="background-attachment: scroll; background-color: white; background-image: none; background-position: 0% 0%; background-repeat: repeat repeat; font-size: 12pt; line-height: 115%;"> etika, khususnya versi Sidgwickian utilitarianisme; Etika, pada gilirannya, menyebabkan dia </span></span><span class="longtext"><span lang="EN-US" style="background-attachment: scroll; background-color: white; background-image: none; background-position: 0% 0%; background-repeat: repeat repeat; font-size: 12pt; line-height: 115%;">mengarah ke</span></span><span class="longtext"><span style="background-attachment: scroll; background-color: white; background-image: none; background-position: 0% 0%; background-repeat: repeat repeat; font-size: 12pt; line-height: 115%;"> ekonomi, karena ekonomi memainkan peran penting dalam menyediakan prasyarat untuk perbaikan kelas pekerja. Bahkan ketika dia berpaling untuk ekonomi, pandangan etisnya terus menjadi kekuatan dominan dalam pemikirannya. </span></span><br />
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<span class="longtext"><span lang="EN-US" style="background-attachment: scroll; background-color: white; background-image: none; background-position: 0% 0%; background-repeat: repeat repeat; font-size: 12pt; line-height: 115%;"> </span></span><span class="longtext"><span style="background-attachment: scroll; background-color: white; background-image: none; background-position: 0% 0%; background-repeat: repeat repeat; font-size: 12pt; line-height: 115%;">Marshall mengambil pendekatan luas untuk ilmu sosial di mana ekonomi memainkan peran penting tetapi terbatas. Dia mengakui bahwa di dunia nyata, kehidupan ekonomi adalah terikat erat dengan etika, sosial dan politik arus-arus ia merasa ekonom tidak harus mengabaikan. Marshall membayangkan perubahan sosial yang dramatis yang melibatkan penghapusan kemiskinan dan pengurangan kesenjangan tajam. Dia melihat tugas ekonomi adalah untuk meningkatkan kondisi-kondisi material, tetapi peningkatan tersebut akan terjadi, Marshall percaya, hanya dalam hubungannya dengan kekuatan-kekuatan sosial dan politik. Minatnya dalam liberalisme, sosialisme, serikat buruh, pendidikan perempuan, kemiskinan dan kemajuan mencerminkan pengaruh filsafat awal sosialnya untuk kegiatan dan tulisan-tulisannya. </span></span><span lang="EN-US" style="background-attachment: scroll; background-color: white; background-image: none; background-position: 0% 0%; background-repeat: repeat repeat; font-size: 12pt; line-height: 115%;"></span></div>
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<span class="longtext"><span lang="EN-US" style="background-attachment: scroll; background-color: white; background-image: none; background-position: 0% 0%; background-repeat: repeat repeat; font-size: 12pt; line-height: 115%;"> </span></span><span class="longtext"><span style="background-attachment: scroll; background-color: white; background-image: none; background-position: 0% 0%; background-repeat: repeat repeat; font-size: 12pt; line-height: 115%;">Marshall terpilih pada tahun 1865 untuk sebuah persekutuan di College St John di Cambridge, dan menjadi dosen di ilmu moral pada 1868. Pada tahun 1885 ia menjadi profesor ekonomi politik di Cambridge, di mana ia tetap sampai pensiun pada tahun 1908. </span></span><span class="longtext"><span style="font-size: 12pt; line-height: 115%;">Selama bertahun-tahun ia berinteraksi dengan pemikir Inggris banyak termasuk Henry Sidgwick, WK <span style="background-attachment: scroll; background-color: white; background-image: none; background-position: 0% 0%; background-repeat: repeat repeat;">Clifford, Benjamin Jowett, William Stanley Jevons, Francis Ysidro Edgeworth, John Neville Keynes dan John Maynard Keynes. </span>Marshall mendirikan "Cambridge </span></span><span class="longtext"><span lang="EN-US" style="font-size: 12pt; line-height: 115%;">School</span></span><span class="longtext"><span style="font-size: 12pt; line-height: 115%;">" yang memberikan perhatian khusus pada </span></span><span class="longtext"><i><span lang="EN-US" style="font-size: 12pt; line-height: 115%;">increasing returns</span></i></span><span class="longtext"><span style="font-size: 12pt; line-height: 115%;">, teori perusahaan, dan ekonomi kesejahteraan, setelah </span></span><span class="longtext"><span lang="EN-US" style="font-size: 12pt; line-height: 115%;">masa </span></span><span class="longtext"><span style="font-size: 12pt; line-height: 115%;">kepemimpinan</span></span><span class="longtext"><span lang="EN-US" style="font-size: 12pt; line-height: 115%;"> habis,</span></span><span class="longtext"><span style="font-size: 12pt; line-height: 115%;"> di</span></span><span class="longtext"><span lang="EN-US" style="font-size: 12pt; line-height: 115%;">serah</span></span><span class="longtext"><span style="font-size: 12pt; line-height: 115%;">kan ke Alfred Pigou dan John Maynard Keynes. </span></span><span lang="EN-US" style="background-attachment: scroll; background-color: white; background-image: none; background-position: 0% 0%; background-repeat: repeat repeat; font-size: 12pt; line-height: 115%;"></span></div>
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<span class="longtext"><b><span style="font-size: 12pt; line-height: 115%;">Ekonomi </span></b></span><b><span lang="EN-US" style="font-size: 12pt; line-height: 115%;"></span></b></div>
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<span lang="EN-US" style="font-size: 12pt; line-height: 115%;"> </span><span class="longtext"><span style="font-size: 12pt; line-height: 115%;">Dia diinginkan untuk meningkatkan kekakuan matematika ekonomi dan mengubahnya menjadi sebuah profesi yang lebih ilmiah. Pada 1870-an ia menulis sejumlah kecil traktat perdagangan internasional dan masalah-masalah proteksionisme. Pada tahun 1879, banyak dari karya-karya ini disusun menjadi sebuah karya berjudul Teori Murni Perdagangan Luar Negeri: Teori Murni Nilai Domestik. Pada tahun yang sama (1879) dia yang dipublikasikan Ekonomi Industri dengan istrinya Mary Paley Marshall. </span></span><span lang="EN-US" style="font-size: 12pt; line-height: 115%;"></span></div>
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<span lang="EN-US" style="font-size: 12pt; line-height: 115%;"> </span><span class="longtext"><span style="font-size: 12pt; line-height: 115%;">Meskipun Marshall mengambil ekonomi ke tingkat yang lebih matematis ketat, ia tidak ingin matematika untuk ekonomi membayangi dan dengan demikian membuat ekonomi tidak relevan bagi orang awam. Oleh karena itu, Marshall disesuaikan teks buku untuk orang awam dan menempatkan konten matematika dalam catatan kaki dan lampiran untuk para profesional. Dalam sebuah surat kepada AL Bowley, ia meletakkan sistem berikut: </span></span><span style="font-size: 12pt; line-height: 115%;"><br />
<span class="longtext">(1) Gunakan bahasa matematika sebagai singkatan, bukan sebagai mesin penyelidikan. (2) Jaga mereka sampai Anda lakukan. (3) Terjemahkan ke dalam bahasa Inggris. (4) Kemudian mengilustrasikannya dengan contoh-contoh yang penting dalam kehidupan nyata (5) Membakar matematika. (6) Jika Anda tidak dapat berhasil dalam 4, terbakar 3. Ini saya lakukan sering ".</span></span><span class="longtext"><span style="font-size: 12pt; line-height: 115%;"> <span lang="EN-US"></span></span></span></div>
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<span class="longtext"><span lang="EN-US" style="font-size: 12pt; line-height: 115%;"> </span></span><span class="longtext"><span style="font-size: 12pt; line-height: 115%;">Marshall telah profesor Maria Paley ekonomi politik di Cambridge dan dua menikah pada tahun 1877, Marshall memaksa untuk meninggalkan posisinya sebagai Fellow (perguruan tinggi) College St John, Cambridge untuk mematuhi aturan selibat di universitas. Ia menjadi kepala sekolah pertama di University College, Bristol, yang merupakan institusi yang kemudian menjadi University of Bristol, lagi berceramah tentang ekonomi politik dan ekonomi. Dia menyempurnakan Ekonomi-nya, sementara Industri di Bristol, dan diterbitkan lebih luas di Inggris sebagai kurikulum ekonomi; bentuk sederhana berdiri di atas dasar-dasar teoritis canggih. Marshall mencapai ukuran ketenaran dari pekerjaan ini, dan setelah kematian William Jevons pada tahun 1882, Marshall menjadi ekonom Inggris terkemuka dari sekolah ilmiah zamannya. </span></span><span class="longtext"><span lang="EN-US" style="font-size: 12pt; line-height: 115%;"></span></span></div>
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<span class="longtext"><span lang="EN-US" style="font-size: 12pt; line-height: 115%;"> </span></span><span class="longtext"><span style="font-size: 12pt; line-height: 115%;">Marshall kembali ke Cambridge, melalui periode singkat di Balliol College, Oxford selama 1883-4, untuk mengambil kursi sebagai Profesor Ekonomi Politik pada tahun 1884 pada kematian Henry Fawcett. Pada Cambridge dia berusaha untuk membuat tripos baru untuk ekonomi, tujuan yang ia hanya akan mencapai pada tahun 1903. Sampai saat itu, ekonomi diajarkan bawah Triposes Ilmu Sejarah dan Moral yang gagal untuk menyediakan Marshall jenis siswa energik dan khusus yang dia inginkan. </span></span><span style="font-size: 12pt; line-height: 115%;"><br />
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<span class="longtext"><span lang="EN-US" style="font-size: 12pt; line-height: 115%;"> </span></span><span class="longtext"><span style="font-size: 12pt; line-height: 115%;">Ia menjabat sebagai Presiden Kongres Koperasi</span></span><span class="longtext"><span lang="EN-US" style="font-size: 12pt; line-height: 115%;"> di </span></span><span class="longtext"><span style="font-size: 12pt; line-height: 115%;">hari pertama </span></span><span class="longtext"><span lang="EN-US" style="font-size: 12pt; line-height: 115%;">pada tahun </span></span><span class="longtext"><span style="font-size: 12pt; line-height: 115%;">1889. Selama dua dekade berikutnya ia bekerja untuk menyelesaikan volume kedua Principles-nya, tapi perhatiannya pantang menyerah terhadap detail dan ambisi untuk kelengkapan dicegah dia dari menguasai luas atas karya tersebut. Pekerjaan itu tidak pernah selesai dan banyak lainnya, bekerja kurang ia mulai bekerja pada - sebuah memorandum mengenai kebijakan perdagangan untuk menteri keuangan tahun 1890-an, misalnya - dibiarkan tidak lengkap karena alasan yang sama. </span></span><span class="longtext"><span lang="EN-US" style="font-size: 12pt; line-height: 115%;"></span></span></div>
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<span class="longtext"><span lang="EN-US" style="font-size: 12pt; line-height: 115%;"> </span></span><span class="longtext"><span style="font-size: 12pt; line-height: 115%;">Masalah kesehatan telah berangsur-angsur tumbuh buruk sejak tahun 1880-an, dan pada tahun 1908 ia pensiun dari universitas. Dia berharap untuk melanjutkan pekerjaan </span></span><span class="longtext"><i><span lang="EN-US" style="font-size: 12pt; line-height: 115%;">Principle</span></i></span><span class="longtext"><span lang="EN-US" style="font-size: 12pt; line-height: 115%;">-nya</span></span><span class="longtext"><span style="font-size: 12pt; line-height: 115%;">, tapi kesehatannya terus memburuk dan p</span></span><span class="longtext"><span lang="EN-US" style="font-size: 12pt; line-height: 115%;">ekerjaan</span></span><span class="longtext"><span style="font-size: 12pt; line-height: 115%;"> itu terus </span></span><span class="longtext"><span lang="EN-US" style="font-size: 12pt; line-height: 115%;">berl</span></span><span class="longtext"><span style="font-size: 12pt; line-height: 115%;">anjut. Pecahnya Perang Dunia Pertama pada tahun 1914 mendorongnya untuk merevisi pemeriksaan tentang ekonomi internasional dan pada 1919 ia diterbitkan Perindustrian dan Perdagangan pada usia 77. Karya ini adalah sebuah risalah lebih empiris dari Prinsip bersifat teoritis, dan untuk alasan bahwa ia gagal untuk menarik pengakuan banyak dari ekonom teoritis. Pada tahun 1923, ia menerbitkan Uang, Kredit, dan Perdagangan, sebuah campuran yang luas ide-ide ekonomi sebelumnya, dipublikasikan dan tidak dipublikasikan, peregangan kembali setengah abad. </span></span><span lang="EN-US" style="font-size: 12pt; line-height: 115%;"></span></div>
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<span class="longtext"><span lang="EN-US" style="font-size: 12pt; line-height: 115%;"> </span></span><span class="longtext"><span style="font-size: 12pt; line-height: 115%;">Dari 1890 </span></span><span class="longtext"><span lang="EN-US" style="font-size: 12pt; line-height: 115%;">- </span></span><span class="longtext"><span style="font-size: 12pt; line-height: 115%;">1924 dia dihormati </span></span><span class="longtext"><span lang="EN-US" style="font-size: 12pt; line-height: 115%;">sebagai bapak</span></span><span class="longtext"><span style="font-size: 12pt; line-height: 115%;"> ekonomi dan sebagian besar ekonom untuk setengah abad setelah kematiannya, kakek terhormat. Siswa di Cambridge</span></span><span class="longtext"><span lang="EN-US" style="font-size: 12pt; line-height: 115%;"> ini</span></span><span class="longtext"><span style="font-size: 12pt; line-height: 115%;"> menjadi tokoh terkemuka di bidang ekonomi, termasuk John Maynard Keynes dan Arthur Cecil Pigou. Warisan paling penting adalah menciptakan, dihormati akademik, profesi ilmiah didirikan bagi para ekonom di masa depan yang mengatur </span></span><span class="longtext"><span lang="EN-US" style="font-size: 12pt; line-height: 115%;">segalanya</span></span><span class="longtext"><span style="font-size: 12pt; line-height: 115%;"> untuk sisa abad ke-20. </span></span><span lang="EN-US" style="font-size: 12pt; line-height: 115%;"></span></div>
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<span class="longtext"><span lang="EN-US" style="font-size: 12pt; line-height: 115%;"> </span></span><span class="longtext"><span style="font-size: 12pt; line-height: 115%;">Setelah meninggal pada usia 81 di rumahnya di Cambridge, Marshall dimakamkan di Pemakaman Ground Kenaikan Paroki. Perpustakaan Departemen Ekonomi di Universitas Cambridge (Perpustakaan Marshall Ekonomi), masyarakat Ekonomi di Cambridge (Masyarakat Marshall) serta University of Bristol Ekonomi departemen diberi nama baginya.</span></span><span class="longtext"><span style="font-size: 12pt; line-height: 115%;"> </span></span><span class="longtext"><span style="font-size: 12pt; line-height: 115%;">Rumahnya, Balliol Croft, berganti nama menjadi Rumah Marshall pada tahun 1991 untuk menghormatinya ketika dibeli oleh Lucy Cavendish College, Cambridge. </span></span></div>
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<b><span style="font-size: 16pt; line-height: 115%;">2. Sir John Richard Hicks (8 April 1904-20 May 1989)</span></b><b><span lang="EN-US" style="font-size: 16pt; line-height: 115%;"></span></b></div>
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<b><span lang="EN-US" style="font-size: 12pt; line-height: 115%;"> </span></b><b><span style="font-size: 12pt; line-height: 115%;">Sir John Richard Hicks</span></b><span style="font-size: 12pt; line-height: 115%;"> adalah seorang ekonom Inggris dan salah satu ekonom paling penting dan berpengaruh pada aba</span><span style="font-size: 12pt; line-height: 115%;">d kedua puluh. Yang paling besar</span><span style="font-size: 12pt; line-height: 115%;"> kontribusi</span><span style="font-size: 12pt; line-height: 115%;">na</span><span style="font-size: 12pt; line-height: 115%;"> di bidang ekonomi adalah pernyataan teori permintaan konsumen dalam ekonomi mikro, dan model IS / LM (1937), yang diringkas </span><span style="font-size: 12pt; line-height: 115%;">dari </span><span style="font-size: 12pt; line-height: 115%;">pandangan </span><span style="font-size: 12pt; line-height: 115%;">makroekonomi </span><span style="font-size: 12pt; line-height: 115%;">Keynesian. Buku</span><span style="font-size: 12pt; line-height: 115%;">nya</span><span style="font-size: 12pt; line-height: 115%;"> </span><i><span style="font-size: 12pt; line-height: 115%;">Value and Capital</span></i><span style="font-size: 12pt; line-height: 115%;"> (1939) secara signifikan </span><span style="font-size: 12pt; line-height: 115%;">menjelaskan tentang </span><i><span lang="EN-US" style="font-size: 12pt; line-height: 115%;">General-Equilibrium</span></i><span style="font-size: 12pt; line-height: 115%;"> dan </span><i><span lang="EN-US" style="font-size: 12pt; line-height: 115%;">Value Theory</span></i><span style="font-size: 12pt; line-height: 115%;">. </span><i><span lang="EN-US" style="font-size: 12pt; line-height: 115%;">The Compensated Demand Function</span></i><span lang="EN-US" style="font-size: 12pt; line-height: 115%;"> </span><span lang="EN-US" style="font-size: 12pt; line-height: 115%;">merupakan sebutan</span><span style="font-size: 12pt; line-height: 115%;"> fungsi permintaan Hick</span><span lang="EN-US" style="font-size: 12pt; line-height: 115%;">s</span><span style="font-size: 12pt; line-height: 115%;">.</span><span lang="EN-US" style="font-size: 12pt; line-height: 115%;"></span></div>
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<span lang="EN-US" style="font-size: 12pt; line-height: 115%;"> </span><span style="font-size: 12pt; line-height: 115%;">Pada tahun 1972 ia menerima Hadiah Nobel dalam Ilmu Ekonomi atas kontribusi pionir </span><span lang="EN-US" style="font-size: 12pt; line-height: 115%;">pada</span><span style="font-size: 12pt; line-height: 115%;"> teori </span><i><span lang="EN-US" style="font-size: 12pt; line-height: 115%;">General-Equilibrium</span></i><span lang="EN-US" style="font-size: 12pt; line-height: 115%;"> </span><span style="font-size: 12pt; line-height: 115%;">dan </span><i><span lang="EN-US" style="font-size: 12pt; line-height: 115%;">Walfare Theory</span></i><span style="font-size: 12pt; line-height: 115%;">.<br />
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<b><span style="font-size: 12pt; line-height: 115%;">Kehidupan awal</span></b><span style="font-size: 12pt; line-height: 115%;"><br />
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<span lang="EN-US" style="font-size: 12pt; line-height: 115%;"> </span><span style="font-size: 12pt; line-height: 115%;">Hicks lahir pada tahun 1904 di Warwick, Inggris. Ayahnya seorang jurnalis di sebuah koran lokal</span><span lang="EN-US" style="font-size: 12pt; line-height: 115%;">. </span><span style="font-size: 12pt; line-height: 115%;">Ia dididik di Clifton College (1917-1922) dan di Balliol College, Oxford (1922-1926), dibiayai oleh beasiswa matematika. Selama </span><span lang="EN-US" style="font-size: 12pt; line-height: 115%;">ber</span><span style="font-size: 12pt; line-height: 115%;">sekolah, dan di tahun pertama di Oxford, ia </span><span lang="EN-US" style="font-size: 12pt; line-height: 115%;">berspesialisasi</span><span lang="EN-US" style="font-size: 12pt; line-height: 115%;"> </span><span lang="EN-US" style="font-size: 12pt; line-height: 115%;">di </span><span style="font-size: 12pt; line-height: 115%;">da</span><span lang="EN-US" style="font-size: 12pt; line-height: 115%;">lam</span><span style="font-size: 12pt; line-height: 115%;"> matematika tetapi juga </span><span lang="EN-US" style="font-size: 12pt; line-height: 115%;">menyukai</span><span style="font-size: 12pt; line-height: 115%;"> sastra dan sejarah. Pada tahun 1923, ia pindah ke Filsafat, Politik dan Ekonomi, "sekolah baru" hanya yang dimulai di Oxford, lulus dengan </span><span lang="EN-US" style="font-size: 12pt; line-height: 115%;">kelas</span><span style="font-size: 12pt; line-height: 115%;"> kehormatan dan sehingga ia menyatakan, "</span><span lang="EN-US" style="font-size: 12pt; line-height: 115%;">T</span><span style="font-size: 12pt; line-height: 115%;">idak ada kualifikasi yang memadai dalam salah satu mata pelajaran" </span><span lang="EN-US" style="font-size: 12pt; line-height: 115%;">yang</span><span lang="EN-US" style="font-size: 12pt; line-height: 115%;"> </span><span lang="EN-US" style="font-size: 12pt; line-height: 115%;">d</span><span style="font-size: 12pt; line-height: 115%;">ia </span><span lang="EN-US" style="font-size: 12pt; line-height: 115%;">telah</span><span lang="EN-US" style="font-size: 12pt; line-height: 115%;"> </span><span lang="EN-US" style="font-size: 12pt; line-height: 115%;">pelajari</span><span style="font-size: 12pt; line-height: 115%;">.<br />
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<b><span style="font-size: 12pt; line-height: 115%;">Karir, </span></b><b><span lang="EN-US" style="font-size: 12pt; line-height: 115%;">p</span></b><b><span style="font-size: 12pt; line-height: 115%;">engaruh, dan kehormatan</span></b><span style="font-size: 12pt; line-height: 115%;"><br />
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<span lang="EN-US" style="font-size: 12pt; line-height: 115%;"> </span><span style="font-size: 12pt; line-height: 115%;">Hicks </span><span lang="EN-US" style="font-size: 12pt; line-height: 115%;">menjadi</span><span style="font-size: 12pt; line-height: 115%;"> dosen sementara di London School of Economics dan Ilmu Politik pada tahun 1930. Dia </span><span lang="EN-US" style="font-size: 12pt; line-height: 115%;">me</span><span style="font-size: 12pt; line-height: 115%;">mulai</span><span lang="EN-US" style="font-size: 12pt; line-height: 115%;">nya</span><span lang="EN-US" style="font-size: 12pt; line-height: 115%;"> </span><span lang="EN-US" style="font-size: 12pt; line-height: 115%;">seb</span><span style="font-size: 12pt; line-height: 115%;">agai seorang ekonom tenaga kerja dan melakukan pekerjaan deskriptif pada hubungan industrial tetapi secara bertahap ia pindah ke sisi analitis, di mana matematika latar belakangnya kembali </span><span lang="EN-US" style="font-size: 12pt; line-height: 115%;">dikhususkan</span><span style="font-size: 12pt; line-height: 115%;">. </span><span lang="EN-US" style="font-size: 12pt; line-height: 115%;">T</span><span style="font-size: 12pt; line-height: 115%;">ermasuk Lionel Robbins dan rekan</span><span lang="EN-US" style="font-size: 12pt; line-height: 115%;">annya</span><span style="font-size: 12pt; line-height: 115%;"> seperti Friedrich von Hayek, RAK Allen, Nicholas Kaldor, dan Abba Lerner dan Ursula Webb, yang pada tahun 1935 menjadi istrinya.</span><span lang="EN-US" style="font-size: 12pt; line-height: 115%;"></span></div>
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<span lang="EN-US" style="font-size: 12pt; line-height: 115%;"> </span><span style="font-size: 12pt; line-height: 115%;">Dari tahun 1935 </span><span lang="EN-US" style="font-size: 12pt; line-height: 115%;">-</span><span style="font-size: 12pt; line-height: 115%;"> 1938, ia mengajar di Cambridge di mana ia juga dari Gonville & Caius College. Ia </span><span lang="EN-US" style="font-size: 12pt; line-height: 115%;">di</span><span style="font-size: 12pt; line-height: 115%;">utama</span><span lang="EN-US" style="font-size: 12pt; line-height: 115%;">kan</span><span lang="EN-US" style="font-size: 12pt; line-height: 115%;"> </span><span lang="EN-US" style="font-size: 12pt; line-height: 115%;">dalam</span><span style="font-size: 12pt; line-height: 115%;"> menulis</span><i><span lang="EN-US" style="font-size: 12pt; line-height: 115%;"> Value and Capital</span></i><i><span style="font-size: 12pt; line-height: 115%;">,</span></i><span style="font-size: 12pt; line-height: 115%;"> yang </span><span lang="EN-US" style="font-size: 12pt; line-height: 115%;">pada dasarnya </span><span lang="EN-US" style="font-size: 12pt; line-height: 115%;"> </span><span lang="EN-US" style="font-size: 12pt; line-height: 115%;">merupakan </span><span style="font-size: 12pt; line-height: 115%;">pekerjaan yang telah dilakukan</span><span lang="EN-US" style="font-size: 12pt; line-height: 115%;">nya</span><span style="font-size: 12pt; line-height: 115%;"> di London. Dari tahun 1938 </span><span lang="EN-US" style="font-size: 12pt; line-height: 115%;">-</span><span style="font-size: 12pt; line-height: 115%;"> 1946, ia adalah Profesor di University of Manchester. Di sanalah ia melakukan pekerjaan utamanya pada ekonomi kesejahteraan, dengan aplikasi untuk akuntansi sosial.</span><span lang="EN-US" style="font-size: 12pt; line-height: 115%;"></span></div>
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<span lang="EN-US" style="font-size: 12pt; line-height: 115%;"> </span><span style="font-size: 12pt; line-height: 115%;">Pada tahun 1946 ia kembali ke Oxford,</span><span style="font-size: 12pt; line-height: 115%;"> </span><span style="font-size: 12pt; line-height: 115%;">sebaga</span><span style="font-size: 12pt; line-height: 115%;"> </span><span style="font-size: 12pt; line-height: 115%;">peneliti dari Nuffield College (1946-1952), kemudian sebagai Profesor Drummond Ekonomi Politik (1952-1965), dan akhirnya sebagai sesama penelitian <a href="http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/All_Souls_College" title="All Souls College"><span style="color: black; text-decoration: none;">All Souls College</span></a></span> <span style="font-size: 12pt; line-height: 115%;"> (1965-1971) di mana ia terus menulis setelah pensiun. Dia juga seorang rekan kehormatan Linacre College, Oxford. Dia meninggal pada tahun 1989.</span><span lang="EN-US" style="font-size: 12pt; line-height: 115%;"></span></div>
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<span lang="EN-US" style="font-size: 12pt; line-height: 115%;"> Hicks, </span><span style="font-size: 12pt; line-height: 115%;">pada tahun 1964 </span><span lang="EN-US" style="font-size: 12pt; line-height: 115%;">m</span><span style="font-size: 12pt; line-height: 115%;">enerima Penghargaan Nobel dalam Ilmu Ekonomi (dengan Kenneth J. Arrow) pada tahun 1972. Dia menyumbangkan Hadiah Nobel untuk London School of Economics dan <a href="http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/London_School_of_Economics" title="London School of Economics"><span style="color: black; text-decoration: none;">Political Science</span></a>'s Library di tahun 1973.</span><span style="font-size: 12pt; line-height: 115%;"> <span lang="EN-US"></span></span></div>
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<span lang="EN-US" style="font-size: 12pt; line-height: 115%;"> </span><span style="font-size: 12pt; line-height: 115%;">Karya awal Hicks sebagai ekonom buruh memuncak dalam </span><i><span lang="EN-US" style="font-size: 12pt; line-height: 115%;">The Theory of Wages</span></i><span style="font-size: 12pt; line-height: 115%;"> (1932, 2nd ed. 1963), </span><span lang="EN-US" style="font-size: 12pt; line-height: 115%;">yang </span><span style="font-size: 12pt; line-height: 115%;">masih dianggap standar di lapangan. Dia berkolaborasi dengan R.G.D. Allen di </span><span lang="EN-US" style="font-size: 12pt; line-height: 115%;">makalah</span><span lang="EN-US" style="font-size: 12pt; line-height: 115%;"> </span><i><span lang="EN-US" style="font-size: 12pt; line-height: 115%;">Value Theory</span></i><span lang="EN-US" style="font-size: 12pt; line-height: 115%;"> </span><span style="font-size: 12pt; line-height: 115%;">yang diterbitkan pada tahun 1934.</span><span lang="EN-US" style="font-size: 12pt; line-height: 115%;"></span></div>
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<span lang="EN-US" style="font-size: 12pt; line-height: 115%;"> <i>Value and Capital</i>-nya </span><span style="font-size: 12pt; line-height: 115%;">diterbitkan pada tahun 1939. Buku ini dibangun pada utilitas ordinal dan diarusutamakan perbedaan antara efek substitusi dan efek pendapatan bagi seorang individu dalam teori permintaan</span><span lang="EN-US" style="font-size: 12pt; line-height: 115%;">. Ia juga m</span><span style="font-size: 12pt; line-height: 115%;">emperkenalkan </span><i><span lang="EN-US" style="font-size: 12pt; line-height: 115%;">General Equilibrium Theory</span></i><span style="font-size: 12pt; line-height: 115%;"> untuk audiens berbahasa Inggris, </span><span lang="EN-US" style="font-size: 12pt; line-height: 115%;">ini merupakan teori untuk</span><span style="font-size: 12pt; line-height: 115%;"> analisis dinamis, dan untuk pertama kalinya mencoba pernyataan ketat kondisi stabilitas </span><i><span lang="EN-US" style="font-size: 12pt; line-height: 115%;">General Equilibrium</span></i><span style="font-size: 12pt; line-height: 115%;">. Dalam proses analisi</span><span lang="EN-US" style="font-size: 12pt; line-height: 115%;">s </span><span style="font-size: 12pt; line-height: 115%;">Hicks </span><span lang="EN-US" style="font-size: 12pt; line-height: 115%;">di</span><span style="font-size: 12pt; line-height: 115%;">formalkan</span><span lang="EN-US" style="font-size: 12pt; line-height: 115%;"> ke dalam <i>Comparative Statics</i></span><span style="font-size: 12pt; line-height: 115%;">. Pada tahun yang sama, ia juga mengembangkan "</span><i><span lang="EN-US" style="font-size: 12pt; line-height: 115%;">Compensation</span></i><span style="font-size: 12pt; line-height: 115%;">" yang </span><span lang="EN-US" style="font-size: 12pt; line-height: 115%;">dikenal dengan</span><span style="font-size: 12pt; line-height: 115%;"> kriteria Kaldor-Hicks efisiensi untuk perbandingan kesejahteraan kebijakan publik alternatif atau negara ekonomi.</span><span lang="EN-US" style="font-size: 12pt; line-height: 115%;"></span></div>
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<span lang="EN-US" style="font-size: 12pt; line-height: 115%;"> </span><span style="font-size: 12pt; line-height: 115%;">Kontribusi Hicks </span><span style="font-size: 12pt; line-height: 115%;">yang paling besar</span><span style="font-size: 12pt; line-height: 115%;"> dalam makroekonomi adalah Hicks-Hansen model IS-LM, yang diformalkan interpretasi dari teori John Maynard Keynes (lihat Keynesianisme). Model ini menggambarkan ekonomi sebagai keseimbangan antara tiga komoditas: uang, konsumsi dan investasi. Hicks sendiri tidak menganut teori</span><span lang="EN-US" style="font-size: 12pt; line-height: 115%;">nya</span><span style="font-size: 12pt; line-height: 115%;">, dan sebuah makalah yang diterbitkan pada tahun 1980, Hicks menegaskan bahwa mereka telah menghilangkan beberapa komponen penting dari argumen Keynes, khususnya yang berkaitan dengan ketidakpastian.</span></div>
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<b><span lang="EN-US" style="font-size: 16pt;">3. Eugene Slutsky (1880-1948)</span></b></div>
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<span style="font-size: 12pt;">Eugene (atau Eugen atau Yevgeni) Slutsky </span><span lang="EN-US" style="font-size: 12pt;">ber</span><span style="font-size: 12pt;">maksud untuk menjadi ahli matematika,</span><span style="font-size: 12pt;"> </span><span style="font-size: 12pt;">tetapi ia diusir dari Universitas Kiev </span><span lang="EN-US" style="font-size: 12pt;">karena</span><span style="font-size: 12pt;"> berpartisipasi dalam pemberontakan mahasiswa dan, setelah beberapa mengembara melalui rekayasa dan Eropa, ia kembali ke Kiev dan akhirnya mendapatkan gelar doktor dalam hukum pada akhirnya dan kemudian menuju untuk mengajar di </span><b><span style="font-family: Calibri, sans-serif; font-size: 12pt;">Kiev Institute of Commerce</span></b><span lang="EN-US" style="font-size: 12pt;"> p</span><span style="font-size: 12pt;">ada tahun 1911 dan Slutsky telah sampel baik dari beberapa bidang. Ini adalah karya dari Lausanne </span><span lang="EN-US" style="font-size: 12pt;">School </span><span style="font-size: 12pt;">dalam ilmu ekonomi yang membuatnya tertarik dan menyerahkan </span><span lang="EN-US" style="font-size: 12pt;">makalah</span><span style="font-size: 12pt;"> pertama ekonomi pada tahun 1915 diterbitkan di Italia (pada saat itu, benteng terakhir dari Walrasian ekonomi). Pada tahun </span><span lang="EN-US" style="font-size: 12pt;">itu</span><span style="font-size: 12pt;">, ia mempresentasikan "Slutsky</span><span lang="EN-US" style="font-size: 12pt;"> Decomposition</span><span style="font-size: 12pt;">" dari fungsi permintaan menjadi substitusi dan efek pendapatan. Karyanya diabaikan dan hanya jauh kemudian, ketika prinsip yang sama itu dibangkitkan secara independen oleh John Hicks dan RAK Allen pada tahun 1934, dia akhirnya mendapatkan beberapa pengakuan. Kontribusi lain yang menonjol untuk ekonomi datang pada tahun 1927, ketika ia menunjukkan bahwa serangkaian guncangan dapat disimpulkan untuk menghasilkan sifat siklus teratur. Makalah ini, yang disejajarkan bahwa Frisch adalah awal dari siklus bisnis kejutan-tergantung yang mendahului teori klasik Baru hari ini. Teorema Slutsky-Natal terkenal (yaitu bahwa rata-rata bergerak dari serangkaian acak dapat menghasilkan gerakan osilasi ketika tidak ada osilasi ada dalam data asli) juga tercantum dalam kertas itu. Sisa karyanya, banyak yang dicapai setelah pindah ke Moskow pada 1920, berada di teori probabilitas. Yang terkenal "Slutsky Teorema" yang berpendapat bahwa jika statistik konvergen hampir pasti atau probabilitas untuk beberapa fungsi, konstanta maka setiap statistik yang terus menerus juga konvergen dengan cara yang sama untuk beberapa fungsi yang konstan - sebuah teorema dengan aplikasi seluruh statistik dan ekonometrik - dibaringkan pada tahun 1925 kertas. Teorema batas lainnya disediakan pada tahun 1928 dan 1929. </span><span lang="EN-US" style="font-size: 12pt;"></span></div>
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<span style="font-size: 12pt;">Pada tahun 1920 Slutsky berpaling untuk bekerja pada teori probabilitas dan proses stokastik, tetapi pada tahun 1927 ia menerbitkan artikel kedua yang terkenal pada teori ekonomi, 'penjumlahan Penyebab Acak sebagai Sumber Proses siklis'. Ini membuka pendekatan baru terhadap teori siklus bisnis dengan hypothesising bahwa interaksi peristiwa kebetulan yang bisa menghasilkan periodisitas ketika tidak ada </span><span lang="EN-US" style="font-size: 12pt;">secara inisial</span><span style="font-size: 12pt;">.</span><span style="font-size: 12pt;"> </span><span style="font-size: 12pt;">Eugen E. Slutsky (7 April 1880, Ukraina - 10 Maret 1948) merupakan awal</span><span lang="EN-US" style="font-size: 12pt;"> dari</span><span style="font-size: 12pt;"> abad kedua puluh Ukrainian-Russian</span><span lang="EN-US" style="font-size: 12pt;"> dalam </span><span style="font-size: 12pt;">matematika statistik, ekonom</span><span lang="EN-US" style="font-size: 12pt;">i</span><span style="font-size: 12pt;"> dan ekonom</span><span lang="EN-US" style="font-size: 12pt;">i</span><span style="font-size: 12pt;"> politik. <span style="background-attachment: scroll; background-color: white; background-image: none; background-position: 0% 0%; background-repeat: repeat repeat;"><br />
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<b><span style="font-size: 12pt;">Slutsky</span></b><b><span style="font-size: 12pt;"> </span></b><b><span style="font-size: 12pt;">di bidang ekonomi <br />
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<span style="font-size: 12pt;">Ia terutama dikenal untuk bekerja di menurunkan hubungan yang terkandung dalam persamaan Slutsky sangat terkenal yang banyak digunakan dalam teori mikroekonomi konsumen untuk memisahkan efek substitusi dan efek pendapatan dari perubahan harga pada jumlah total dari barang yang diminta setelah harga perubahan yang baik, atau dalam yang baik terkait yang mungkin memiliki efek lintas-harga pada kuantitas yang baik asli. Ada analog Slutsky banyak theory.He produsen kurang dikenal oleh para ekonom Barat dari beberapa orang sezamannya, karena kepentingan intelektual berubah serta faktor-faktor eksternal dipaksakan kepadanya setelah Revolusi Bolshevik pada tahun 1917. Kertas mani di bidang Ekonomi, dan beberapa berpendapat kertas terakhir Ekonomi dan bukan teori probabilitas, diterbitkan pada tahun 1915 (Sulla teoria del del bilancio consumatore). Paul Samuelson mencatat bahwa sampai tahun 1936, ia telah sepenuhnya menyadari 1915 "karya" Slutsky itu karena Perang Dunia I dan publikasi bahasa Italia kertas. RAK Allen melakukan paling untuk menyebarkan bekerja Slutsky pada teori konsumen dalam makalah yang diterbitkan pada tahun 1936 dan 1950. </span><span lang="EN-US" style="background-attachment: scroll; background-color: white; background-image: none; background-position: 0% 0%; background-repeat: repeat repeat; font-size: 12pt;"></span></div>
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<span style="font-size: 12pt;">Vincent Barnett berpendapat: <br />
"Sebuah kasus yang baik dapat dibuat untuk gagasan bahwa Slutsky adalah yang paling terkenal dari semua ekonom Rusia, bahkan lebih dikenal [dari] ND Kondratiev, LV Kantorovich, atau MI Tugan-Baranovsky. Ada konsep eponymous seperti persamaan Slutsky, berlian Slutsky, matriks Slutsky, dan efek Slutsky-Natal, dan pencarian jurnal-literatur dilakukan pada nama-Nya untuk tahun 1980-1995 menghasilkan tujuh puluh sembilan artikel langsung menggunakan beberapa aspek pekerjaan Slutsky itu</span><span lang="EN-US" style="font-size: 12pt;"> … </span><span style="font-size: 12pt;">Selain itu, banyak buku mikroekonomi mengandung menyebutkan menonjol dari kontribusi Slutsky terhadap teori perilaku konsumen, terutama persamaan Slutsky, dibaptis oleh John Hicks sebagai 'Persamaan Dasar Teori Nilai'. Slutsky pekerjaan yang demikian merupakan bagian integral dari ilmu ekonomi arus utama kontemporer dan ekonometrik, klaim yang tidak dapat benar-benar dibuat oleh ekonom Soviet lainnya, bahkan mungkin oleh ekonom Rusia lain "(Barnett, 2004). </span><span lang="EN-US" style="background-attachment: scroll; background-color: white; background-image: none; background-position: 0% 0%; background-repeat: repeat repeat; font-size: 12pt;"></span></div>
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<span style="font-size: 12pt;">Pada tahun 1920 Slutsky berpaling untuk bekerja pada teori probabilitas dan proses stokastik, tetapi pada tahun 1927 ia menerbitkan artikel kedua yang terkenal pada teori ekonomi, 'penjumlahan Penyebab Acak sebagai Sumber Proses siklis'. Ini membuka pendekatan baru terhadap teori siklus bisnis dengan hypothesising bahwa interaksi peristiwa kebetulan yang bisa menghasilkan periodisitas ketika tidak ada awalnya. <span style="background-attachment: scroll; background-color: white; background-image: none; background-position: 0% 0%; background-repeat: repeat repeat;"><br />
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<b><span lang="EN-US" style="font-size: 12pt;">Pekerjaan Matematika Statistik</span></b><b><span style="font-size: 12pt;"> <br />
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<span style="font-size: 12pt;">Kemudian bekerja Slutsky itu terutama dalam teori probabilitas dan teori proses stokastik. Dia umumnya dikreditkan untuk hasil yang dikenal sebagai Teorema Slutsky itu. <span style="background-attachment: scroll; background-color: white; background-image: none; background-position: 0% 0%; background-repeat: repeat repeat;"><br />
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<b>(Sumber: Wikipedia)</b></div>
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<span style="font-size: 12pt; line-height: 115%;"></span></div>Teuku Bahran Basyiranhttp://www.blogger.com/profile/10525417589204464156noreply@blogger.com0tag:blogger.com,1999:blog-3600626824018511994.post-12771718632590757102012-07-29T22:21:00.001+02:002012-07-29T22:21:06.051+02:00The Political Compass™<div class="MsoNormal" style="margin-bottom: .0001pt; margin-bottom: 0cm;">
<b><span style="font-size: 14.0pt; line-height: 115%; mso-bidi-font-family: Calibri; mso-bidi-font-size: 11.0pt; mso-bidi-theme-font: minor-latin;">Welcome
to The Political Compass</span></b><span class="tm"><b><span style="font-size: 14pt; line-height: 115%;">™</span></b></span><span class="tm"><b><span lang="EN-US" style="font-size: 14pt; line-height: 115%;"> (</span></b></span><a href="http://www.politicalcompass.org/"><b><span lang="EN-US" style="font-size: 14.0pt; line-height: 115%; mso-ansi-language: EN-US; mso-bidi-font-family: Calibri; mso-bidi-font-size: 12.0pt; mso-bidi-theme-font: minor-latin;">http://www.politicalcompass.org</span></b></a><span class="tm"><b><span lang="EN-US" style="font-size: 14pt; line-height: 115%;">) </span></b></span><b><span lang="EN-US" style="font-size: 14.0pt; line-height: 115%; mso-ansi-language: EN-US; mso-bidi-font-family: Calibri; mso-bidi-font-size: 11.0pt; mso-bidi-theme-font: minor-latin;"><o:p></o:p></span></b></div>
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<span style="font-size: 12pt;">There's
abundant evidence for the need of it. The old one-dimensional categories of
'right' and 'left', established for the seating arrangement of the French
National Assembly of 1789, are overly simplistic for today's complex political
landscape. For example, who are the 'conservatives' in today's Russia? Are they
the unreconstructed Stalinists, or the reformers who have adopted the right-wing
views of conservatives like Margaret Thatcher?<o:p></o:p></span></div>
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<span style="font-size: 12pt;">On the standard left-right scale, how do
you distinguish leftists like Stalin and Gandhi? It's not sufficient to say
that Stalin was simply more left than Gandhi. There are fundamental political
differences between them that the old categories on their own can't explain.
Similarly, we generally describe social reactionaries as 'right-wingers', yet
that leaves left-wing reactionaries like Robert Mugabe and Pol Pot off the
hook.<o:p></o:p></span></div>
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<span style="font-size: 12pt;">That's about as much as we should tell you
for now. After you've responded to the following propositions during the next
3-5 minutes, all will be explained. In each instance, you're asked to choose
the response that best describes your feeling: Strongly Disagree, Disagree,
Agree or Strongly Agree. At the end of the test, you'll be given the compass,
with your own special position on it.<o:p></o:p></span></div>
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<b><i><span style="font-size: 12pt;">The test
presented on this website is entirely anonymous. None of your personal details
are required, and nothing about your result is recorded or logged in any way.
The answers are only used to calculate your reading, and cannot be accessed by
anyone, ever.</span></i></b><span style="font-size: 12pt;"><o:p></o:p></span></div>
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<span style="font-size: 12pt;">Our sister application on Facebook does
log scores, but the information is used only for social networking purposes,
and is visible only within the user's personal network. We do not give anyone's
score to outside organisations. If you don't want your score logged, don't use
the Facebook app.<o:p></o:p></span></div>
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<span style="font-size: 12pt;">The idea was developed by a political
journalist with a university counselling background, assisted by a professor of
social history. They're indebted to people like Wilhelm Reich and Theodor
Adorno for their ground-breaking work in this field. We believe that, in an age
of diminishing ideology, a new generation in particular will get a better idea
of where they stand politically - and the sort of political company they keep.<o:p></o:p></span></div>
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<span style="font-size: 12pt;">So are you ready to</span><span style="font-size: 12pt;"> </span><a href="http://www.politicalcompass.org/test"><span style="color: #000066; font-size: 12.0pt; mso-bidi-font-family: Calibri; mso-bidi-font-size: 11.0pt; mso-bidi-theme-font: minor-latin; mso-fareast-font-family: "Times New Roman"; mso-fareast-language: IN; text-decoration: none; text-underline: none;">take the test</span></a><span style="font-size: 12pt;">? Remember that there's no right, wrong or ideal
response. It's simply a measure of attitudes and inevitable human
contradictions to provide a more integrated definition of where people and
parties are really at.</span><span style="font-size: 12pt;"> </span><a href="http://www.politicalcompass.org/test"><span style="color: #000066; font-size: 12.0pt; mso-bidi-font-family: Calibri; mso-bidi-font-size: 11.0pt; mso-bidi-theme-font: minor-latin; mso-fareast-font-family: "Times New Roman"; mso-fareast-language: IN; text-decoration: none; text-underline: none;">Click here to start.</span></a></div>
<a name='more'></a><span lang="EN-US"><o:p></o:p></span><br />
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<b><span style="font-size: 14.0pt; mso-bidi-font-family: Calibri; mso-bidi-font-size: 13.5pt; mso-bidi-theme-font: minor-latin; mso-fareast-font-family: "Times New Roman"; mso-fareast-language: IN;">Page 1</span></b><b><span lang="EN-US" style="font-size: 14.0pt; mso-ansi-language: EN-US; mso-bidi-font-family: Calibri; mso-bidi-font-size: 13.5pt; mso-bidi-theme-font: minor-latin; mso-fareast-font-family: "Times New Roman"; mso-fareast-language: IN;">: </span></b><span style="font-size: 14.0pt; mso-bidi-font-family: Calibri; mso-bidi-font-size: 12.0pt; mso-bidi-theme-font: minor-latin; mso-fareast-font-family: "Times New Roman"; mso-fareast-language: IN;">Just a few propositions to start with, concerning -
no less - how you see the country and the world.</span><span lang="EN-US" style="font-size: 14.0pt; mso-ansi-language: EN-US; mso-bidi-font-family: Calibri; mso-bidi-font-size: 12.0pt; mso-bidi-theme-font: minor-latin; mso-fareast-font-family: "Times New Roman"; mso-fareast-language: IN;"><o:p></o:p></span></div>
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<span style="font-size: 12pt;">If economic globalisation is
inevitable, it should primarily serve humanity rather than the interests of
trans-national corporations.</span><span lang="EN-US" style="font-size: 12pt;"><o:p></o:p></span></div>
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<i><span lang="EN-US" style="font-size: 12pt;">Jika perekonomian global
tidak dapat dihindarkan, sebaiknya mengutamakan pelayanan masyarakat
dibandingkan kepentingan perusahaan transnasional.<o:p></o:p></span></i></div>
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<span style="font-size: 12.0pt; mso-bidi-font-family: Calibri; mso-bidi-theme-font: minor-latin; mso-fareast-font-family: "Times New Roman"; mso-fareast-language: IN;"><input name="answer_1" type="radio" value="0" /></span><span style="font-size: 12.0pt; mso-bidi-font-family: Calibri; mso-bidi-theme-font: minor-latin; mso-fareast-font-family: "Times New Roman"; mso-fareast-language: IN;"> Strongly Disagree<br />
</span><span style="font-size: 12.0pt; mso-bidi-font-family: Calibri; mso-bidi-theme-font: minor-latin; mso-fareast-font-family: "Times New Roman"; mso-fareast-language: IN;"><input name="answer_1" type="radio" value="1" /></span><span style="font-size: 12.0pt; mso-bidi-font-family: Calibri; mso-bidi-theme-font: minor-latin; mso-fareast-font-family: "Times New Roman"; mso-fareast-language: IN;"> Disagree<br />
</span><span style="font-size: 12.0pt; mso-bidi-font-family: Calibri; mso-bidi-theme-font: minor-latin; mso-fareast-font-family: "Times New Roman"; mso-fareast-language: IN;"><input name="answer_1" type="radio" value="2" /></span><span style="font-size: 12.0pt; mso-bidi-font-family: Calibri; mso-bidi-theme-font: minor-latin; mso-fareast-font-family: "Times New Roman"; mso-fareast-language: IN;"> Agree<br />
</span><span style="font-size: 12.0pt; mso-bidi-font-family: Calibri; mso-bidi-theme-font: minor-latin; mso-fareast-font-family: "Times New Roman"; mso-fareast-language: IN;"><input name="answer_1" type="radio" value="3" /></span><span style="font-size: 12.0pt; mso-bidi-font-family: Calibri; mso-bidi-theme-font: minor-latin; mso-fareast-font-family: "Times New Roman"; mso-fareast-language: IN;"> Strongly Agree<o:p></o:p></span></div>
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<div class="MsoNormal" style="margin-bottom: 0.0001pt;">
<span style="font-size: 12pt;">I'd always support my country, whether
it was right or wrong.</span><span lang="EN-US" style="font-size: 12pt;"><o:p></o:p></span></div>
<div class="MsoNormal" style="margin-bottom: 0.0001pt;">
<i><span lang="EN-US" style="font-size: 12pt;">Saya selalu mendukung
negara saya, baik pada saat benar ataupun salah.<o:p></o:p></span></i></div>
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<td style="padding: .75pt .75pt .75pt .75pt; width: 40.0%;" valign="top" width="40%">
<div class="MsoNormal" style="margin-bottom: 0.0001pt;">
<span style="font-size: 12.0pt; mso-bidi-font-family: Calibri; mso-bidi-theme-font: minor-latin; mso-fareast-font-family: "Times New Roman"; mso-fareast-language: IN;"><input name="answer_2" type="radio" value="0" /></span><span style="font-size: 12.0pt; mso-bidi-font-family: Calibri; mso-bidi-theme-font: minor-latin; mso-fareast-font-family: "Times New Roman"; mso-fareast-language: IN;"> Strongly Disagree<br />
</span><span style="font-size: 12.0pt; mso-bidi-font-family: Calibri; mso-bidi-theme-font: minor-latin; mso-fareast-font-family: "Times New Roman"; mso-fareast-language: IN;"><input name="answer_2" type="radio" value="1" /></span><span style="font-size: 12.0pt; mso-bidi-font-family: Calibri; mso-bidi-theme-font: minor-latin; mso-fareast-font-family: "Times New Roman"; mso-fareast-language: IN;"> Disagree<br />
</span><span style="font-size: 12.0pt; mso-bidi-font-family: Calibri; mso-bidi-theme-font: minor-latin; mso-fareast-font-family: "Times New Roman"; mso-fareast-language: IN;"><input name="answer_2" type="radio" value="2" /></span><span style="font-size: 12.0pt; mso-bidi-font-family: Calibri; mso-bidi-theme-font: minor-latin; mso-fareast-font-family: "Times New Roman"; mso-fareast-language: IN;"> Agree<br />
</span><span style="font-size: 12.0pt; mso-bidi-font-family: Calibri; mso-bidi-theme-font: minor-latin; mso-fareast-font-family: "Times New Roman"; mso-fareast-language: IN;"><input name="answer_2" type="radio" value="3" /></span><span style="font-size: 12.0pt; mso-bidi-font-family: Calibri; mso-bidi-theme-font: minor-latin; mso-fareast-font-family: "Times New Roman"; mso-fareast-language: IN;"> Strongly Agree<o:p></o:p></span></div>
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<div class="MsoNormal" style="margin-bottom: 0.0001pt;">
<span style="font-size: 12pt;">No one chooses his or her country of
birth, so it's foolish to be proud of it.</span><span lang="EN-US" style="font-size: 12pt;"><o:p></o:p></span></div>
<div class="MsoNormal" style="margin-bottom: 0.0001pt;">
<i><span lang="EN-US" style="font-size: 12pt;">Tidak ada satupun orang
yang memilih negara tempat lahirnya, sehingga hal itu bodoh untuk dibanggakan.<o:p></o:p></span></i></div>
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<td style="padding: .75pt .75pt .75pt .75pt; width: 40.0%;" valign="top" width="40%">
<div class="MsoNormal" style="margin-bottom: 0.0001pt;">
<span style="font-size: 12.0pt; mso-bidi-font-family: Calibri; mso-bidi-theme-font: minor-latin; mso-fareast-font-family: "Times New Roman"; mso-fareast-language: IN;"><input name="answer_3" type="radio" value="0" /></span><span style="font-size: 12.0pt; mso-bidi-font-family: Calibri; mso-bidi-theme-font: minor-latin; mso-fareast-font-family: "Times New Roman"; mso-fareast-language: IN;"> Strongly Disagree<br />
</span><span style="font-size: 12.0pt; mso-bidi-font-family: Calibri; mso-bidi-theme-font: minor-latin; mso-fareast-font-family: "Times New Roman"; mso-fareast-language: IN;"><input name="answer_3" type="radio" value="1" /></span><span style="font-size: 12.0pt; mso-bidi-font-family: Calibri; mso-bidi-theme-font: minor-latin; mso-fareast-font-family: "Times New Roman"; mso-fareast-language: IN;"> Disagree<br />
</span><span style="font-size: 12.0pt; mso-bidi-font-family: Calibri; mso-bidi-theme-font: minor-latin; mso-fareast-font-family: "Times New Roman"; mso-fareast-language: IN;"><input name="answer_3" type="radio" value="2" /></span><span style="font-size: 12.0pt; mso-bidi-font-family: Calibri; mso-bidi-theme-font: minor-latin; mso-fareast-font-family: "Times New Roman"; mso-fareast-language: IN;"> Agree<br />
</span><span style="font-size: 12.0pt; mso-bidi-font-family: Calibri; mso-bidi-theme-font: minor-latin; mso-fareast-font-family: "Times New Roman"; mso-fareast-language: IN;"><input name="answer_3" type="radio" value="3" /></span><span style="font-size: 12.0pt; mso-bidi-font-family: Calibri; mso-bidi-theme-font: minor-latin; mso-fareast-font-family: "Times New Roman"; mso-fareast-language: IN;"> Strongly Agree<o:p></o:p></span></div>
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<div class="MsoNormal" style="margin-bottom: 0.0001pt;">
<span style="font-size: 12pt;">Our race has many superior qualities,
compared with other races.</span><span lang="EN-US" style="font-size: 12pt;"><o:p></o:p></span></div>
<div class="MsoNormal" style="margin-bottom: 0.0001pt;">
<i><span lang="EN-US" style="font-size: 12pt;">Ras kita memiliki banyak
kualitas terbaik, dibanding dengan ras lain.<o:p></o:p></span></i></div>
</td>
<td style="padding: .75pt .75pt .75pt .75pt; width: 40.0%;" valign="top" width="40%">
<div class="MsoNormal" style="margin-bottom: 0.0001pt;">
<span style="font-size: 12.0pt; mso-bidi-font-family: Calibri; mso-bidi-theme-font: minor-latin; mso-fareast-font-family: "Times New Roman"; mso-fareast-language: IN;"><input name="answer_4" type="radio" value="0" /></span><span style="font-size: 12.0pt; mso-bidi-font-family: Calibri; mso-bidi-theme-font: minor-latin; mso-fareast-font-family: "Times New Roman"; mso-fareast-language: IN;"> Strongly Disagree<br />
</span><span style="font-size: 12.0pt; mso-bidi-font-family: Calibri; mso-bidi-theme-font: minor-latin; mso-fareast-font-family: "Times New Roman"; mso-fareast-language: IN;"><input name="answer_4" type="radio" value="1" /></span><span style="font-size: 12.0pt; mso-bidi-font-family: Calibri; mso-bidi-theme-font: minor-latin; mso-fareast-font-family: "Times New Roman"; mso-fareast-language: IN;"> Disagree<br />
</span><span style="font-size: 12.0pt; mso-bidi-font-family: Calibri; mso-bidi-theme-font: minor-latin; mso-fareast-font-family: "Times New Roman"; mso-fareast-language: IN;"><input name="answer_4" type="radio" value="2" /></span><span style="font-size: 12.0pt; mso-bidi-font-family: Calibri; mso-bidi-theme-font: minor-latin; mso-fareast-font-family: "Times New Roman"; mso-fareast-language: IN;"> Agree<br />
</span><span style="font-size: 12.0pt; mso-bidi-font-family: Calibri; mso-bidi-theme-font: minor-latin; mso-fareast-font-family: "Times New Roman"; mso-fareast-language: IN;"><input name="answer_4" type="radio" value="3" /></span><span style="font-size: 12.0pt; mso-bidi-font-family: Calibri; mso-bidi-theme-font: minor-latin; mso-fareast-font-family: "Times New Roman"; mso-fareast-language: IN;"> Strongly Agree<o:p></o:p></span></div>
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<td style="height: 73.3pt; padding: .75pt .75pt .75pt .75pt; width: 60.0%;" valign="top" width="60%">
<div class="MsoNormal" style="margin-bottom: 0.0001pt;">
<span style="font-size: 12pt;">The enemy of my enemy is my friend.</span><span lang="EN-US" style="font-size: 12pt;"><o:p></o:p></span></div>
<div class="MsoNormal" style="margin-bottom: 0.0001pt;">
<i><span lang="EN-US" style="font-size: 12pt;">Musuh dari musuh saya
adalah teman saya.<o:p></o:p></span></i></div>
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<td style="height: 73.3pt; padding: .75pt .75pt .75pt .75pt; width: 40.0%;" valign="top" width="40%">
<div class="MsoNormal" style="margin-bottom: 0.0001pt;">
<span style="font-size: 12.0pt; mso-bidi-font-family: Calibri; mso-bidi-theme-font: minor-latin; mso-fareast-font-family: "Times New Roman"; mso-fareast-language: IN;"><input name="answer_5" type="radio" value="0" /></span><span style="font-size: 12.0pt; mso-bidi-font-family: Calibri; mso-bidi-theme-font: minor-latin; mso-fareast-font-family: "Times New Roman"; mso-fareast-language: IN;"> Strongly Disagree<br />
</span><span style="font-size: 12.0pt; mso-bidi-font-family: Calibri; mso-bidi-theme-font: minor-latin; mso-fareast-font-family: "Times New Roman"; mso-fareast-language: IN;"><input name="answer_5" type="radio" value="1" /></span><span style="font-size: 12.0pt; mso-bidi-font-family: Calibri; mso-bidi-theme-font: minor-latin; mso-fareast-font-family: "Times New Roman"; mso-fareast-language: IN;"> Disagree<br />
</span><span style="font-size: 12.0pt; mso-bidi-font-family: Calibri; mso-bidi-theme-font: minor-latin; mso-fareast-font-family: "Times New Roman"; mso-fareast-language: IN;"><input name="answer_5" type="radio" value="2" /></span><span style="font-size: 12.0pt; mso-bidi-font-family: Calibri; mso-bidi-theme-font: minor-latin; mso-fareast-font-family: "Times New Roman"; mso-fareast-language: IN;"> Agree<br />
</span><span style="font-size: 12.0pt; mso-bidi-font-family: Calibri; mso-bidi-theme-font: minor-latin; mso-fareast-font-family: "Times New Roman"; mso-fareast-language: IN;"><input name="answer_5" type="radio" value="3" /></span><span style="font-size: 12.0pt; mso-bidi-font-family: Calibri; mso-bidi-theme-font: minor-latin; mso-fareast-font-family: "Times New Roman"; mso-fareast-language: IN;"> Strongly Agree<o:p></o:p></span></div>
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<div class="MsoNormal" style="margin-bottom: 0.0001pt;">
<span style="font-size: 12pt;">Military action that defies
international law is sometimes justified.</span><span lang="EN-US" style="font-size: 12pt;"><o:p></o:p></span></div>
<div class="MsoNormal" style="margin-bottom: 0.0001pt;">
<i><span lang="EN-US" style="font-size: 12pt;">Aksi militer yang
menentang hukum internasional terkadang dapat dibenarkan.<o:p></o:p></span></i></div>
</td>
<td style="padding: .75pt .75pt .75pt .75pt; width: 40.0%;" valign="top" width="40%">
<div class="MsoNormal" style="margin-bottom: 0.0001pt;">
<span style="font-size: 12.0pt; mso-bidi-font-family: Calibri; mso-bidi-theme-font: minor-latin; mso-fareast-font-family: "Times New Roman"; mso-fareast-language: IN;"><input name="answer_6" type="radio" value="0" /></span><span style="font-size: 12.0pt; mso-bidi-font-family: Calibri; mso-bidi-theme-font: minor-latin; mso-fareast-font-family: "Times New Roman"; mso-fareast-language: IN;"> Strongly Disagree<br />
</span><span style="font-size: 12.0pt; mso-bidi-font-family: Calibri; mso-bidi-theme-font: minor-latin; mso-fareast-font-family: "Times New Roman"; mso-fareast-language: IN;"><input name="answer_6" type="radio" value="1" /></span><span style="font-size: 12.0pt; mso-bidi-font-family: Calibri; mso-bidi-theme-font: minor-latin; mso-fareast-font-family: "Times New Roman"; mso-fareast-language: IN;"> Disagree<br />
</span><span style="font-size: 12.0pt; mso-bidi-font-family: Calibri; mso-bidi-theme-font: minor-latin; mso-fareast-font-family: "Times New Roman"; mso-fareast-language: IN;"><input name="answer_6" type="radio" value="2" /></span><span style="font-size: 12.0pt; mso-bidi-font-family: Calibri; mso-bidi-theme-font: minor-latin; mso-fareast-font-family: "Times New Roman"; mso-fareast-language: IN;"> Agree<br />
</span><span style="font-size: 12.0pt; mso-bidi-font-family: Calibri; mso-bidi-theme-font: minor-latin; mso-fareast-font-family: "Times New Roman"; mso-fareast-language: IN;"><input name="answer_6" type="radio" value="3" /></span><span style="font-size: 12.0pt; mso-bidi-font-family: Calibri; mso-bidi-theme-font: minor-latin; mso-fareast-font-family: "Times New Roman"; mso-fareast-language: IN;"> Strongly Agree<o:p></o:p></span></div>
</td>
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<div class="MsoNormal" style="margin-bottom: 0.0001pt;">
<span style="font-size: 12pt;">There is now a worrying fusion of
information and entertainment.</span><span lang="EN-US" style="font-size: 12pt;"><o:p></o:p></span></div>
<div class="MsoNormal" style="margin-bottom: 0.0001pt;">
<span lang="EN-US" style="font-size: 12pt;">Saat sekarang
sedang ditakutkan dengan adanya perpaduan antara informasi dan hiburan.<o:p></o:p></span></div>
</td>
<td style="padding: .75pt .75pt .75pt .75pt; width: 40.0%;" valign="top" width="40%">
<div class="MsoNormal" style="margin-bottom: 0.0001pt;">
<span style="font-size: 12.0pt; mso-bidi-font-family: Calibri; mso-bidi-theme-font: minor-latin; mso-fareast-font-family: "Times New Roman"; mso-fareast-language: IN;"><input name="answer_7" type="radio" value="0" /></span><span style="font-size: 12.0pt; mso-bidi-font-family: Calibri; mso-bidi-theme-font: minor-latin; mso-fareast-font-family: "Times New Roman"; mso-fareast-language: IN;"> Strongly Disagree<br />
</span><span style="font-size: 12.0pt; mso-bidi-font-family: Calibri; mso-bidi-theme-font: minor-latin; mso-fareast-font-family: "Times New Roman"; mso-fareast-language: IN;"><input name="answer_7" type="radio" value="1" /></span><span style="font-size: 12.0pt; mso-bidi-font-family: Calibri; mso-bidi-theme-font: minor-latin; mso-fareast-font-family: "Times New Roman"; mso-fareast-language: IN;"> Disagree<br />
</span><span style="font-size: 12.0pt; mso-bidi-font-family: Calibri; mso-bidi-theme-font: minor-latin; mso-fareast-font-family: "Times New Roman"; mso-fareast-language: IN;"><input name="answer_7" type="radio" value="2" /></span><span style="font-size: 12.0pt; mso-bidi-font-family: Calibri; mso-bidi-theme-font: minor-latin; mso-fareast-font-family: "Times New Roman"; mso-fareast-language: IN;"> Agree</span><span lang="EN-US" style="font-size: 12.0pt; mso-ansi-language: EN-US; mso-bidi-font-family: Calibri; mso-bidi-theme-font: minor-latin; mso-fareast-font-family: "Times New Roman"; mso-fareast-language: IN;"><o:p></o:p></span></div>
<div class="MsoNormal" style="margin-bottom: 0.0001pt;">
<span style="font-size: 12.0pt; mso-bidi-font-family: Calibri; mso-bidi-theme-font: minor-latin; mso-fareast-font-family: "Times New Roman"; mso-fareast-language: IN;"><input checked="" name="answer_7" type="radio" value="3" /></span><span style="font-size: 12.0pt; mso-bidi-font-family: Calibri; mso-bidi-theme-font: minor-latin; mso-fareast-font-family: "Times New Roman"; mso-fareast-language: IN;"> Strongly Agree<o:p></o:p></span></div>
</td>
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</tbody></table>
<div style="border-top: solid windowtext 1.0pt; border: none; mso-border-top-alt: solid windowtext .75pt; mso-element: para-border-div; padding: 1.0pt 0cm 0cm 0cm;">
<div align="center" class="MsoNormal" style="border: none; margin-bottom: 0.0001pt; padding: 0cm; text-align: center;">
<br /></div>
<div align="center" class="MsoNormal" style="border: none; margin-bottom: 0.0001pt; padding: 0cm; text-align: center;">
<br /></div>
<div align="center" class="MsoNormal" style="border: none; margin-bottom: 0.0001pt; padding: 0cm; text-align: center;">
<span style="display: none; font-size: 8.0pt; mso-bidi-font-family: Calibri; mso-bidi-theme-font: minor-latin; mso-fareast-font-family: "Times New Roman"; mso-fareast-language: IN; mso-hide: all;">Bottom of Form<o:p></o:p></span></div>
</div>
</td>
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</tbody></table>
<div class="MsoNormal" style="background-color: white; background-position: initial initial; background-repeat: initial initial; margin-bottom: 0.0001pt;">
<b><span lang="EN-US" style="font-size: 14pt;">P</span></b><b><span style="font-size: 14pt;">age
2</span></b><b><span lang="EN-US" style="font-size: 14pt;">: </span></b><span style="font-size: 14pt;">Now, the
economy. We're talking attitudes here, not the FTSE index.</span><span lang="EN-US" style="font-size: 14pt;"><o:p></o:p></span></div>
<div class="MsoNormal" style="background-color: white; background-position: initial initial; background-repeat: initial initial; margin-bottom: 0.0001pt;">
<br /></div>
<table border="1" cellpadding="0" class="MsoNormalTable" style="background: white; mso-cellspacing: 1.5pt; mso-yfti-tbllook: 1184; width: 100.0%;">
<tbody>
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<td style="padding: .75pt .75pt .75pt .75pt; width: 59.42%;" valign="top" width="59%">
<div class="MsoNormal" style="margin-bottom: 0.0001pt;">
<span style="font-size: 12pt;">People are ultimately divided more by class than by
nationality.</span><span lang="EN-US" style="font-size: 12pt;"><o:p></o:p></span></div>
<div class="MsoNormal" style="margin-bottom: 0.0001pt;">
<i><span lang="EN-US" style="font-size: 12pt;">Orang pada akhirnya lebih terbagi oleh kelas
daripada oleh nationalitas.<o:p></o:p></span></i></div>
</td>
<td style="padding: .75pt .75pt .75pt .75pt; width: 39.6%;" valign="top" width="39%">
<div class="MsoNormal" style="margin-bottom: 0.0001pt;">
<span style="font-size: 12.0pt; mso-bidi-font-family: Calibri; mso-bidi-theme-font: minor-latin; mso-fareast-font-family: "Times New Roman"; mso-fareast-language: IN;"><input name="answer_8" type="radio" value="0" /></span><span style="font-size: 12.0pt; mso-bidi-font-family: Calibri; mso-bidi-theme-font: minor-latin; mso-fareast-font-family: "Times New Roman"; mso-fareast-language: IN;"> Strongly
Disagree<br />
</span><span style="font-size: 12.0pt; mso-bidi-font-family: Calibri; mso-bidi-theme-font: minor-latin; mso-fareast-font-family: "Times New Roman"; mso-fareast-language: IN;"><input name="answer_8" type="radio" value="1" /></span><span style="font-size: 12.0pt; mso-bidi-font-family: Calibri; mso-bidi-theme-font: minor-latin; mso-fareast-font-family: "Times New Roman"; mso-fareast-language: IN;"> Disagree<br />
</span><span style="font-size: 12.0pt; mso-bidi-font-family: Calibri; mso-bidi-theme-font: minor-latin; mso-fareast-font-family: "Times New Roman"; mso-fareast-language: IN;"><input name="answer_8" type="radio" value="2" /></span><span style="font-size: 12.0pt; mso-bidi-font-family: Calibri; mso-bidi-theme-font: minor-latin; mso-fareast-font-family: "Times New Roman"; mso-fareast-language: IN;"> Agree<br />
</span><span style="font-size: 12.0pt; mso-bidi-font-family: Calibri; mso-bidi-theme-font: minor-latin; mso-fareast-font-family: "Times New Roman"; mso-fareast-language: IN;"><input name="answer_8" type="radio" value="3" /></span><span style="font-size: 12.0pt; mso-bidi-font-family: Calibri; mso-bidi-theme-font: minor-latin; mso-fareast-font-family: "Times New Roman"; mso-fareast-language: IN;"> Strongly
Agree<o:p></o:p></span></div>
</td>
</tr>
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<td style="padding: .75pt .75pt .75pt .75pt; width: 59.42%;" valign="top" width="59%">
<div class="MsoNormal" style="margin-bottom: 0.0001pt;">
<span style="font-size: 12pt;">Controlling inflation is more important than
controlling unemployment.</span><span lang="EN-US" style="font-size: 12pt;"><o:p></o:p></span></div>
<div class="MsoNormal" style="margin-bottom: 0.0001pt;">
<i><span lang="EN-US" style="font-size: 12pt;">Mengontrol inflasi lebih penting daripada mengontrol
pengangguran.<o:p></o:p></span></i></div>
</td>
<td style="padding: .75pt .75pt .75pt .75pt; width: 39.6%;" valign="top" width="39%">
<div class="MsoNormal" style="margin-bottom: 0.0001pt;">
<span style="font-size: 12.0pt; mso-bidi-font-family: Calibri; mso-bidi-theme-font: minor-latin; mso-fareast-font-family: "Times New Roman"; mso-fareast-language: IN;"><input name="answer_9" type="radio" value="0" /></span><span style="font-size: 12.0pt; mso-bidi-font-family: Calibri; mso-bidi-theme-font: minor-latin; mso-fareast-font-family: "Times New Roman"; mso-fareast-language: IN;"> Strongly
Disagree<br />
</span><span style="font-size: 12.0pt; mso-bidi-font-family: Calibri; mso-bidi-theme-font: minor-latin; mso-fareast-font-family: "Times New Roman"; mso-fareast-language: IN;"><input name="answer_9" type="radio" value="1" /></span><span style="font-size: 12.0pt; mso-bidi-font-family: Calibri; mso-bidi-theme-font: minor-latin; mso-fareast-font-family: "Times New Roman"; mso-fareast-language: IN;"> Disagree<br />
</span><span style="font-size: 12.0pt; mso-bidi-font-family: Calibri; mso-bidi-theme-font: minor-latin; mso-fareast-font-family: "Times New Roman"; mso-fareast-language: IN;"><input name="answer_9" type="radio" value="2" /></span><span style="font-size: 12.0pt; mso-bidi-font-family: Calibri; mso-bidi-theme-font: minor-latin; mso-fareast-font-family: "Times New Roman"; mso-fareast-language: IN;"> Agree<br />
</span><span style="font-size: 12.0pt; mso-bidi-font-family: Calibri; mso-bidi-theme-font: minor-latin; mso-fareast-font-family: "Times New Roman"; mso-fareast-language: IN;"><input name="answer_9" type="radio" value="3" /></span><span style="font-size: 12.0pt; mso-bidi-font-family: Calibri; mso-bidi-theme-font: minor-latin; mso-fareast-font-family: "Times New Roman"; mso-fareast-language: IN;"> Strongly
Agree<o:p></o:p></span></div>
</td>
</tr>
<tr>
<td style="padding: .75pt .75pt .75pt .75pt; width: 59.42%;" valign="top" width="59%">
<div class="MsoNormal" style="margin-bottom: 0.0001pt;">
<i><span style="font-size: 12pt;">Because
corporations cannot be trusted to voluntarily protect the environment, they
require regulation.</span></i><i><span lang="EN-US" style="font-size: 12pt;"><o:p></o:p></span></i></div>
<div class="MsoNormal" style="margin-bottom: 0.0001pt;">
<i><span lang="EN-US" style="font-size: 12pt;">Dikarenakan perusahaan tidak dapat dipercayauntuk
dapat melindungi lingkungan, mereka harus diberikan regulasi.</span></i><span lang="EN-US" style="font-size: 12pt;"><o:p></o:p></span></div>
</td>
<td style="padding: .75pt .75pt .75pt .75pt; width: 39.6%;" valign="top" width="39%">
<div class="MsoNormal" style="margin-bottom: 0.0001pt;">
<span style="font-size: 12.0pt; mso-bidi-font-family: Calibri; mso-bidi-theme-font: minor-latin; mso-fareast-font-family: "Times New Roman"; mso-fareast-language: IN;"><input name="answer_10" type="radio" value="0" /></span><span style="font-size: 12.0pt; mso-bidi-font-family: Calibri; mso-bidi-theme-font: minor-latin; mso-fareast-font-family: "Times New Roman"; mso-fareast-language: IN;"> Strongly
Disagree<br />
</span><span style="font-size: 12.0pt; mso-bidi-font-family: Calibri; mso-bidi-theme-font: minor-latin; mso-fareast-font-family: "Times New Roman"; mso-fareast-language: IN;"><input name="answer_10" type="radio" value="1" /></span><span style="font-size: 12.0pt; mso-bidi-font-family: Calibri; mso-bidi-theme-font: minor-latin; mso-fareast-font-family: "Times New Roman"; mso-fareast-language: IN;"> Disagree<br />
</span><span style="font-size: 12.0pt; mso-bidi-font-family: Calibri; mso-bidi-theme-font: minor-latin; mso-fareast-font-family: "Times New Roman"; mso-fareast-language: IN;"><input name="answer_10" type="radio" value="2" /></span><span style="font-size: 12.0pt; mso-bidi-font-family: Calibri; mso-bidi-theme-font: minor-latin; mso-fareast-font-family: "Times New Roman"; mso-fareast-language: IN;"> Agree<br />
</span><span style="font-size: 12.0pt; mso-bidi-font-family: Calibri; mso-bidi-theme-font: minor-latin; mso-fareast-font-family: "Times New Roman"; mso-fareast-language: IN;"><input name="answer_10" type="radio" value="3" /></span><span style="font-size: 12.0pt; mso-bidi-font-family: Calibri; mso-bidi-theme-font: minor-latin; mso-fareast-font-family: "Times New Roman"; mso-fareast-language: IN;"> Strongly
Agree<o:p></o:p></span></div>
</td>
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<td style="padding: .75pt .75pt .75pt .75pt; width: 59.42%;" valign="top" width="59%">
<div class="MsoNormal" style="margin-bottom: 0.0001pt;">
<span style="font-size: 12pt;">"from each according to his ability, to each
according to his need" is a fundamentally good idea.</span><span lang="EN-US" style="font-size: 12pt;"><o:p></o:p></span></div>
<div class="MsoNormal" style="margin-bottom: 0.0001pt;">
<i><span lang="EN-US" style="font-size: 12pt;">“Dari seseorang sesuai kemampuannya, untuk seseorang
sesuai kebutuhannya” adalah ide bagus yang mendasar.<o:p></o:p></span></i></div>
</td>
<td style="padding: .75pt .75pt .75pt .75pt; width: 39.6%;" valign="top" width="39%">
<div class="MsoNormal" style="margin-bottom: 0.0001pt;">
<span style="font-size: 12.0pt; mso-bidi-font-family: Calibri; mso-bidi-theme-font: minor-latin; mso-fareast-font-family: "Times New Roman"; mso-fareast-language: IN;"><input name="answer_11" type="radio" value="0" /></span><span style="font-size: 12.0pt; mso-bidi-font-family: Calibri; mso-bidi-theme-font: minor-latin; mso-fareast-font-family: "Times New Roman"; mso-fareast-language: IN;"> Strongly
Disagree<br />
</span><span style="font-size: 12.0pt; mso-bidi-font-family: Calibri; mso-bidi-theme-font: minor-latin; mso-fareast-font-family: "Times New Roman"; mso-fareast-language: IN;"><input name="answer_11" type="radio" value="1" /></span><span style="font-size: 12.0pt; mso-bidi-font-family: Calibri; mso-bidi-theme-font: minor-latin; mso-fareast-font-family: "Times New Roman"; mso-fareast-language: IN;"> Disagree<br />
</span><span style="font-size: 12.0pt; mso-bidi-font-family: Calibri; mso-bidi-theme-font: minor-latin; mso-fareast-font-family: "Times New Roman"; mso-fareast-language: IN;"><input name="answer_11" type="radio" value="2" /></span><span style="font-size: 12.0pt; mso-bidi-font-family: Calibri; mso-bidi-theme-font: minor-latin; mso-fareast-font-family: "Times New Roman"; mso-fareast-language: IN;"> Agree<br />
</span><span style="font-size: 12.0pt; mso-bidi-font-family: Calibri; mso-bidi-theme-font: minor-latin; mso-fareast-font-family: "Times New Roman"; mso-fareast-language: IN;"><input name="answer_11" type="radio" value="3" /></span><span style="font-size: 12.0pt; mso-bidi-font-family: Calibri; mso-bidi-theme-font: minor-latin; mso-fareast-font-family: "Times New Roman"; mso-fareast-language: IN;"> Strongly
Agree<o:p></o:p></span></div>
</td>
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<td style="padding: .75pt .75pt .75pt .75pt; width: 59.42%;" valign="top" width="59%">
<div class="MsoNormal" style="margin-bottom: 0.0001pt;">
<span style="font-size: 12pt;">It's a sad reflection on our society that something
as basic as drinking water is now a bottled, branded consumer product.</span><span lang="EN-US" style="font-size: 12pt;"><o:p></o:p></span></div>
</td>
<td style="padding: .75pt .75pt .75pt .75pt; width: 39.6%;" valign="top" width="39%">
<div class="MsoNormal" style="margin-bottom: 0.0001pt;">
<span style="font-size: 12.0pt; mso-bidi-font-family: Calibri; mso-bidi-theme-font: minor-latin; mso-fareast-font-family: "Times New Roman"; mso-fareast-language: IN;"><input name="answer_12" type="radio" value="0" /></span><span style="font-size: 12.0pt; mso-bidi-font-family: Calibri; mso-bidi-theme-font: minor-latin; mso-fareast-font-family: "Times New Roman"; mso-fareast-language: IN;"> Strongly
Disagree<br />
</span><span style="font-size: 12.0pt; mso-bidi-font-family: Calibri; mso-bidi-theme-font: minor-latin; mso-fareast-font-family: "Times New Roman"; mso-fareast-language: IN;"><input name="answer_12" type="radio" value="1" /></span><span style="font-size: 12.0pt; mso-bidi-font-family: Calibri; mso-bidi-theme-font: minor-latin; mso-fareast-font-family: "Times New Roman"; mso-fareast-language: IN;"> Disagree<br />
</span><span style="font-size: 12.0pt; mso-bidi-font-family: Calibri; mso-bidi-theme-font: minor-latin; mso-fareast-font-family: "Times New Roman"; mso-fareast-language: IN;"><input name="answer_12" type="radio" value="2" /></span><span style="font-size: 12.0pt; mso-bidi-font-family: Calibri; mso-bidi-theme-font: minor-latin; mso-fareast-font-family: "Times New Roman"; mso-fareast-language: IN;"> Agree<br />
</span><span style="font-size: 12.0pt; mso-bidi-font-family: Calibri; mso-bidi-theme-font: minor-latin; mso-fareast-font-family: "Times New Roman"; mso-fareast-language: IN;"><input name="answer_12" type="radio" value="3" /></span><span style="font-size: 12.0pt; mso-bidi-font-family: Calibri; mso-bidi-theme-font: minor-latin; mso-fareast-font-family: "Times New Roman"; mso-fareast-language: IN;"> Strongly
Agree<o:p></o:p></span></div>
</td>
</tr>
<tr>
<td style="padding: .75pt .75pt .75pt .75pt; width: 59.42%;" valign="top" width="59%">
<div class="MsoNormal" style="margin-bottom: 0.0001pt;">
<span style="font-size: 12pt;">Land shouldn't be a commodity to be bought and sold.<o:p></o:p></span></div>
</td>
<td style="padding: .75pt .75pt .75pt .75pt; width: 39.6%;" valign="top" width="39%">
<div class="MsoNormal" style="margin-bottom: 0.0001pt;">
<span style="font-size: 12.0pt; mso-bidi-font-family: Calibri; mso-bidi-theme-font: minor-latin; mso-fareast-font-family: "Times New Roman"; mso-fareast-language: IN;"><input name="answer_13" type="radio" value="0" /></span><span style="font-size: 12.0pt; mso-bidi-font-family: Calibri; mso-bidi-theme-font: minor-latin; mso-fareast-font-family: "Times New Roman"; mso-fareast-language: IN;"> Strongly
Disagree<br />
</span><span style="font-size: 12.0pt; mso-bidi-font-family: Calibri; mso-bidi-theme-font: minor-latin; mso-fareast-font-family: "Times New Roman"; mso-fareast-language: IN;"><input name="answer_13" type="radio" value="1" /></span><span style="font-size: 12.0pt; mso-bidi-font-family: Calibri; mso-bidi-theme-font: minor-latin; mso-fareast-font-family: "Times New Roman"; mso-fareast-language: IN;"> Disagree<br />
</span><span style="font-size: 12.0pt; mso-bidi-font-family: Calibri; mso-bidi-theme-font: minor-latin; mso-fareast-font-family: "Times New Roman"; mso-fareast-language: IN;"><input name="answer_13" type="radio" value="2" /></span><span style="font-size: 12.0pt; mso-bidi-font-family: Calibri; mso-bidi-theme-font: minor-latin; mso-fareast-font-family: "Times New Roman"; mso-fareast-language: IN;"> Agree<br />
</span><span style="font-size: 12.0pt; mso-bidi-font-family: Calibri; mso-bidi-theme-font: minor-latin; mso-fareast-font-family: "Times New Roman"; mso-fareast-language: IN;"><input name="answer_13" type="radio" value="3" /></span><span style="font-size: 12.0pt; mso-bidi-font-family: Calibri; mso-bidi-theme-font: minor-latin; mso-fareast-font-family: "Times New Roman"; mso-fareast-language: IN;"> Strongly
Agree<o:p></o:p></span></div>
</td>
</tr>
<tr>
<td style="padding: .75pt .75pt .75pt .75pt; width: 59.42%;" valign="top" width="59%">
<div class="MsoNormal" style="margin-bottom: 0.0001pt;">
<span style="font-size: 12pt;">It is regrettable that many personal fortunes are
made by people who simply manipulate money and contribute nothing to their
society.<o:p></o:p></span></div>
</td>
<td style="padding: .75pt .75pt .75pt .75pt; width: 39.6%;" valign="top" width="39%">
<div class="MsoNormal" style="margin-bottom: 0.0001pt;">
<span style="font-size: 12.0pt; mso-bidi-font-family: Calibri; mso-bidi-theme-font: minor-latin; mso-fareast-font-family: "Times New Roman"; mso-fareast-language: IN;"><input name="answer_14" type="radio" value="0" /></span><span style="font-size: 12.0pt; mso-bidi-font-family: Calibri; mso-bidi-theme-font: minor-latin; mso-fareast-font-family: "Times New Roman"; mso-fareast-language: IN;"> Strongly
Disagree<br />
</span><span style="font-size: 12.0pt; mso-bidi-font-family: Calibri; mso-bidi-theme-font: minor-latin; mso-fareast-font-family: "Times New Roman"; mso-fareast-language: IN;"><input name="answer_14" type="radio" value="1" /></span><span style="font-size: 12.0pt; mso-bidi-font-family: Calibri; mso-bidi-theme-font: minor-latin; mso-fareast-font-family: "Times New Roman"; mso-fareast-language: IN;"> Disagree<br />
</span><span style="font-size: 12.0pt; mso-bidi-font-family: Calibri; mso-bidi-theme-font: minor-latin; mso-fareast-font-family: "Times New Roman"; mso-fareast-language: IN;"><input name="answer_14" type="radio" value="2" /></span><span style="font-size: 12.0pt; mso-bidi-font-family: Calibri; mso-bidi-theme-font: minor-latin; mso-fareast-font-family: "Times New Roman"; mso-fareast-language: IN;"> Agree<br />
</span><span style="font-size: 12.0pt; mso-bidi-font-family: Calibri; mso-bidi-theme-font: minor-latin; mso-fareast-font-family: "Times New Roman"; mso-fareast-language: IN;"><input name="answer_14" type="radio" value="3" /></span><span style="font-size: 12.0pt; mso-bidi-font-family: Calibri; mso-bidi-theme-font: minor-latin; mso-fareast-font-family: "Times New Roman"; mso-fareast-language: IN;"> Strongly
Agree<o:p></o:p></span></div>
</td>
</tr>
<tr>
<td style="padding: .75pt .75pt .75pt .75pt; width: 59.42%;" valign="top" width="59%">
<div class="MsoNormal" style="margin-bottom: 0.0001pt;">
<span style="font-size: 12pt;">Protectionism is sometimes necessary in trade.<o:p></o:p></span></div>
</td>
<td style="padding: .75pt .75pt .75pt .75pt; width: 39.6%;" valign="top" width="39%">
<div class="MsoNormal" style="margin-bottom: 0.0001pt;">
<span style="font-size: 12.0pt; mso-bidi-font-family: Calibri; mso-bidi-theme-font: minor-latin; mso-fareast-font-family: "Times New Roman"; mso-fareast-language: IN;"><input name="answer_15" type="radio" value="0" /></span><span style="font-size: 12.0pt; mso-bidi-font-family: Calibri; mso-bidi-theme-font: minor-latin; mso-fareast-font-family: "Times New Roman"; mso-fareast-language: IN;"> Strongly
Disagree<br />
</span><span style="font-size: 12.0pt; mso-bidi-font-family: Calibri; mso-bidi-theme-font: minor-latin; mso-fareast-font-family: "Times New Roman"; mso-fareast-language: IN;"><input name="answer_15" type="radio" value="1" /></span><span style="font-size: 12.0pt; mso-bidi-font-family: Calibri; mso-bidi-theme-font: minor-latin; mso-fareast-font-family: "Times New Roman"; mso-fareast-language: IN;"> Disagree<br />
</span><span style="font-size: 12.0pt; mso-bidi-font-family: Calibri; mso-bidi-theme-font: minor-latin; mso-fareast-font-family: "Times New Roman"; mso-fareast-language: IN;"><input name="answer_15" type="radio" value="2" /></span><span style="font-size: 12.0pt; mso-bidi-font-family: Calibri; mso-bidi-theme-font: minor-latin; mso-fareast-font-family: "Times New Roman"; mso-fareast-language: IN;"> Agree<br />
</span><span style="font-size: 12.0pt; mso-bidi-font-family: Calibri; mso-bidi-theme-font: minor-latin; mso-fareast-font-family: "Times New Roman"; mso-fareast-language: IN;"><input name="answer_15" type="radio" value="3" /></span><span style="font-size: 12.0pt; mso-bidi-font-family: Calibri; mso-bidi-theme-font: minor-latin; mso-fareast-font-family: "Times New Roman"; mso-fareast-language: IN;"> Strongly
Agree<o:p></o:p></span></div>
</td>
</tr>
<tr>
<td style="padding: .75pt .75pt .75pt .75pt; width: 59.42%;" valign="top" width="59%">
<div class="MsoNormal" style="margin-bottom: 0.0001pt;">
<span style="font-size: 12pt;">The only social responsibility of a company should
be to deliver a profit to its shareholders.<o:p></o:p></span></div>
</td>
<td style="padding: .75pt .75pt .75pt .75pt; width: 39.6%;" valign="top" width="39%">
<div class="MsoNormal" style="margin-bottom: 0.0001pt;">
<span style="font-size: 12.0pt; mso-bidi-font-family: Calibri; mso-bidi-theme-font: minor-latin; mso-fareast-font-family: "Times New Roman"; mso-fareast-language: IN;"><input name="answer_16" type="radio" value="0" /></span><span style="font-size: 12.0pt; mso-bidi-font-family: Calibri; mso-bidi-theme-font: minor-latin; mso-fareast-font-family: "Times New Roman"; mso-fareast-language: IN;"> Strongly
Disagree<br />
</span><span style="font-size: 12.0pt; mso-bidi-font-family: Calibri; mso-bidi-theme-font: minor-latin; mso-fareast-font-family: "Times New Roman"; mso-fareast-language: IN;"><input name="answer_16" type="radio" value="1" /></span><span style="font-size: 12.0pt; mso-bidi-font-family: Calibri; mso-bidi-theme-font: minor-latin; mso-fareast-font-family: "Times New Roman"; mso-fareast-language: IN;"> Disagree<br />
</span><span style="font-size: 12.0pt; mso-bidi-font-family: Calibri; mso-bidi-theme-font: minor-latin; mso-fareast-font-family: "Times New Roman"; mso-fareast-language: IN;"><input name="answer_16" type="radio" value="2" /></span><span style="font-size: 12.0pt; mso-bidi-font-family: Calibri; mso-bidi-theme-font: minor-latin; mso-fareast-font-family: "Times New Roman"; mso-fareast-language: IN;"> Agree<br />
</span><span style="font-size: 12.0pt; mso-bidi-font-family: Calibri; mso-bidi-theme-font: minor-latin; mso-fareast-font-family: "Times New Roman"; mso-fareast-language: IN;"><input name="answer_16" type="radio" value="3" /></span><span style="font-size: 12.0pt; mso-bidi-font-family: Calibri; mso-bidi-theme-font: minor-latin; mso-fareast-font-family: "Times New Roman"; mso-fareast-language: IN;"> Strongly
Agree<o:p></o:p></span></div>
</td>
</tr>
<tr>
<td style="padding: .75pt .75pt .75pt .75pt; width: 59.42%;" valign="top" width="59%">
<div class="MsoNormal" style="margin-bottom: 0.0001pt;">
<span style="font-size: 12pt;">The rich are too highly taxed.<o:p></o:p></span></div>
</td>
<td style="padding: .75pt .75pt .75pt .75pt; width: 39.6%;" valign="top" width="39%">
<div class="MsoNormal" style="margin-bottom: 0.0001pt;">
<span style="font-size: 12.0pt; mso-bidi-font-family: Calibri; mso-bidi-theme-font: minor-latin; mso-fareast-font-family: "Times New Roman"; mso-fareast-language: IN;"><input name="answer_17" type="radio" value="0" /></span><span style="font-size: 12.0pt; mso-bidi-font-family: Calibri; mso-bidi-theme-font: minor-latin; mso-fareast-font-family: "Times New Roman"; mso-fareast-language: IN;"> Strongly
Disagree<br />
</span><span style="font-size: 12.0pt; mso-bidi-font-family: Calibri; mso-bidi-theme-font: minor-latin; mso-fareast-font-family: "Times New Roman"; mso-fareast-language: IN;"><input name="answer_17" type="radio" value="1" /></span><span style="font-size: 12.0pt; mso-bidi-font-family: Calibri; mso-bidi-theme-font: minor-latin; mso-fareast-font-family: "Times New Roman"; mso-fareast-language: IN;"> Disagree<br />
</span><span style="font-size: 12.0pt; mso-bidi-font-family: Calibri; mso-bidi-theme-font: minor-latin; mso-fareast-font-family: "Times New Roman"; mso-fareast-language: IN;"><input name="answer_17" type="radio" value="2" /></span><span style="font-size: 12.0pt; mso-bidi-font-family: Calibri; mso-bidi-theme-font: minor-latin; mso-fareast-font-family: "Times New Roman"; mso-fareast-language: IN;"> Agree<br />
</span><span style="font-size: 12.0pt; mso-bidi-font-family: Calibri; mso-bidi-theme-font: minor-latin; mso-fareast-font-family: "Times New Roman"; mso-fareast-language: IN;"><input name="answer_17" type="radio" value="3" /></span><span style="font-size: 12.0pt; mso-bidi-font-family: Calibri; mso-bidi-theme-font: minor-latin; mso-fareast-font-family: "Times New Roman"; mso-fareast-language: IN;"> Strongly
Agree<o:p></o:p></span></div>
</td>
</tr>
<tr>
<td style="padding: .75pt .75pt .75pt .75pt; width: 59.42%;" valign="top" width="59%">
<div class="MsoNormal" style="margin-bottom: 0.0001pt;">
<span style="font-size: 12pt;">Those with the ability to pay should have the right
to higher standards of medical care .<o:p></o:p></span></div>
</td>
<td style="padding: .75pt .75pt .75pt .75pt; width: 39.6%;" valign="top" width="39%">
<div class="MsoNormal" style="margin-bottom: 0.0001pt;">
<span style="font-size: 12.0pt; mso-bidi-font-family: Calibri; mso-bidi-theme-font: minor-latin; mso-fareast-font-family: "Times New Roman"; mso-fareast-language: IN;"><input name="answer_18" type="radio" value="0" /></span><span style="font-size: 12.0pt; mso-bidi-font-family: Calibri; mso-bidi-theme-font: minor-latin; mso-fareast-font-family: "Times New Roman"; mso-fareast-language: IN;"> Strongly
Disagree<br />
</span><span style="font-size: 12.0pt; mso-bidi-font-family: Calibri; mso-bidi-theme-font: minor-latin; mso-fareast-font-family: "Times New Roman"; mso-fareast-language: IN;"><input name="answer_18" type="radio" value="1" /></span><span style="font-size: 12.0pt; mso-bidi-font-family: Calibri; mso-bidi-theme-font: minor-latin; mso-fareast-font-family: "Times New Roman"; mso-fareast-language: IN;"> Disagree<br />
</span><span style="font-size: 12.0pt; mso-bidi-font-family: Calibri; mso-bidi-theme-font: minor-latin; mso-fareast-font-family: "Times New Roman"; mso-fareast-language: IN;"><input name="answer_18" type="radio" value="2" /></span><span style="font-size: 12.0pt; mso-bidi-font-family: Calibri; mso-bidi-theme-font: minor-latin; mso-fareast-font-family: "Times New Roman"; mso-fareast-language: IN;"> Agree<br />
</span><span style="font-size: 12.0pt; mso-bidi-font-family: Calibri; mso-bidi-theme-font: minor-latin; mso-fareast-font-family: "Times New Roman"; mso-fareast-language: IN;"><input name="answer_18" type="radio" value="3" /></span><span style="font-size: 12.0pt; mso-bidi-font-family: Calibri; mso-bidi-theme-font: minor-latin; mso-fareast-font-family: "Times New Roman"; mso-fareast-language: IN;"> Strongly
Agree<o:p></o:p></span></div>
</td>
</tr>
<tr>
<td style="padding: .75pt .75pt .75pt .75pt; width: 59.42%;" valign="top" width="59%">
<div class="MsoNormal" style="margin-bottom: 0.0001pt;">
<span style="font-size: 12pt;">Governments should penalise businesses that mislead
the public.<o:p></o:p></span></div>
</td>
<td style="padding: .75pt .75pt .75pt .75pt; width: 39.6%;" valign="top" width="39%">
<div class="MsoNormal" style="margin-bottom: 0.0001pt;">
<span style="font-size: 12.0pt; mso-bidi-font-family: Calibri; mso-bidi-theme-font: minor-latin; mso-fareast-font-family: "Times New Roman"; mso-fareast-language: IN;"><input name="answer_19" type="radio" value="0" /></span><span style="font-size: 12.0pt; mso-bidi-font-family: Calibri; mso-bidi-theme-font: minor-latin; mso-fareast-font-family: "Times New Roman"; mso-fareast-language: IN;"> Strongly
Disagree<br />
</span><span style="font-size: 12.0pt; mso-bidi-font-family: Calibri; mso-bidi-theme-font: minor-latin; mso-fareast-font-family: "Times New Roman"; mso-fareast-language: IN;"><input name="answer_19" type="radio" value="1" /></span><span style="font-size: 12.0pt; mso-bidi-font-family: Calibri; mso-bidi-theme-font: minor-latin; mso-fareast-font-family: "Times New Roman"; mso-fareast-language: IN;"> Disagree<br />
</span><span style="font-size: 12.0pt; mso-bidi-font-family: Calibri; mso-bidi-theme-font: minor-latin; mso-fareast-font-family: "Times New Roman"; mso-fareast-language: IN;"><input name="answer_19" type="radio" value="2" /></span><span style="font-size: 12.0pt; mso-bidi-font-family: Calibri; mso-bidi-theme-font: minor-latin; mso-fareast-font-family: "Times New Roman"; mso-fareast-language: IN;"> Agree<br />
</span><span style="font-size: 12.0pt; mso-bidi-font-family: Calibri; mso-bidi-theme-font: minor-latin; mso-fareast-font-family: "Times New Roman"; mso-fareast-language: IN;"><input name="answer_19" type="radio" value="3" /></span><span style="font-size: 12.0pt; mso-bidi-font-family: Calibri; mso-bidi-theme-font: minor-latin; mso-fareast-font-family: "Times New Roman"; mso-fareast-language: IN;"> Strongly
Agree<o:p></o:p></span></div>
</td>
</tr>
<tr>
<td style="padding: .75pt .75pt .75pt .75pt; width: 59.42%;" valign="top" width="59%">
<div class="MsoNormal" style="margin-bottom: 0.0001pt;">
<span style="font-size: 12pt;">A genuine free market requires restrictions on the
ability of predator multinationals to create monopolies.<o:p></o:p></span></div>
</td>
<td style="padding: .75pt .75pt .75pt .75pt; width: 39.6%;" valign="top" width="39%">
<div class="MsoNormal" style="margin-bottom: 0.0001pt;">
<span style="font-size: 12.0pt; mso-bidi-font-family: Calibri; mso-bidi-theme-font: minor-latin; mso-fareast-font-family: "Times New Roman"; mso-fareast-language: IN;"><input name="answer_20" type="radio" value="0" /></span><span style="font-size: 12.0pt; mso-bidi-font-family: Calibri; mso-bidi-theme-font: minor-latin; mso-fareast-font-family: "Times New Roman"; mso-fareast-language: IN;"> Strongly
Disagree<br />
</span><span style="font-size: 12.0pt; mso-bidi-font-family: Calibri; mso-bidi-theme-font: minor-latin; mso-fareast-font-family: "Times New Roman"; mso-fareast-language: IN;"><input name="answer_20" type="radio" value="1" /></span><span style="font-size: 12.0pt; mso-bidi-font-family: Calibri; mso-bidi-theme-font: minor-latin; mso-fareast-font-family: "Times New Roman"; mso-fareast-language: IN;"> Disagree<br />
</span><span style="font-size: 12.0pt; mso-bidi-font-family: Calibri; mso-bidi-theme-font: minor-latin; mso-fareast-font-family: "Times New Roman"; mso-fareast-language: IN;"><input name="answer_20" type="radio" value="2" /></span><span style="font-size: 12.0pt; mso-bidi-font-family: Calibri; mso-bidi-theme-font: minor-latin; mso-fareast-font-family: "Times New Roman"; mso-fareast-language: IN;"> Agree<br />
</span><span style="font-size: 12.0pt; mso-bidi-font-family: Calibri; mso-bidi-theme-font: minor-latin; mso-fareast-font-family: "Times New Roman"; mso-fareast-language: IN;"><input name="answer_20" type="radio" value="3" /></span><span style="font-size: 12.0pt; mso-bidi-font-family: Calibri; mso-bidi-theme-font: minor-latin; mso-fareast-font-family: "Times New Roman"; mso-fareast-language: IN;"> Strongly
Agree<o:p></o:p></span></div>
</td>
</tr>
<tr>
<td style="padding: .75pt .75pt .75pt .75pt; width: 59.42%;" valign="top" width="59%">
<div class="MsoNormal" style="margin-bottom: 0.0001pt;">
<span style="font-size: 12pt;">The freer the market, the freer the people.<o:p></o:p></span></div>
</td>
<td style="padding: .75pt .75pt .75pt .75pt; width: 39.6%;" valign="top" width="39%">
<div class="MsoNormal" style="margin-bottom: 0.0001pt;">
<span style="font-size: 12.0pt; mso-bidi-font-family: Calibri; mso-bidi-theme-font: minor-latin; mso-fareast-font-family: "Times New Roman"; mso-fareast-language: IN;"><input name="answer_21" type="radio" value="0" /></span><span style="font-size: 12.0pt; mso-bidi-font-family: Calibri; mso-bidi-theme-font: minor-latin; mso-fareast-font-family: "Times New Roman"; mso-fareast-language: IN;"> Strongly
Disagree<br />
</span><span style="font-size: 12.0pt; mso-bidi-font-family: Calibri; mso-bidi-theme-font: minor-latin; mso-fareast-font-family: "Times New Roman"; mso-fareast-language: IN;"><input name="answer_21" type="radio" value="1" /></span><span style="font-size: 12.0pt; mso-bidi-font-family: Calibri; mso-bidi-theme-font: minor-latin; mso-fareast-font-family: "Times New Roman"; mso-fareast-language: IN;"> Disagree<br />
</span><span style="font-size: 12.0pt; mso-bidi-font-family: Calibri; mso-bidi-theme-font: minor-latin; mso-fareast-font-family: "Times New Roman"; mso-fareast-language: IN;"><input name="answer_21" type="radio" value="2" /></span><span style="font-size: 12.0pt; mso-bidi-font-family: Calibri; mso-bidi-theme-font: minor-latin; mso-fareast-font-family: "Times New Roman"; mso-fareast-language: IN;"> Agree<br />
</span><span style="font-size: 12.0pt; mso-bidi-font-family: Calibri; mso-bidi-theme-font: minor-latin; mso-fareast-font-family: "Times New Roman"; mso-fareast-language: IN;"><input name="answer_21" type="radio" value="3" /></span><span style="font-size: 12.0pt; mso-bidi-font-family: Calibri; mso-bidi-theme-font: minor-latin; mso-fareast-font-family: "Times New Roman"; mso-fareast-language: IN;"> Strongly
Agree<o:p></o:p></span></div>
</td>
</tr>
</tbody></table>
<div class="MsoNormal" style="background-color: white; background-position: initial initial; background-repeat: initial initial; margin-bottom: 0.0001pt;">
<br /></div>
<div class="MsoNormal" style="background-color: white; background-position: initial initial; background-repeat: initial initial; margin-bottom: 0.0001pt;">
<br /></div>
<div class="MsoNormal" style="background-color: white; background-position: initial initial; background-repeat: initial initial; margin-bottom: 0.0001pt;">
<b><span style="font-size: 14pt;">Page 3</span></b><b><span lang="EN-US" style="font-size: 14pt;">: </span></b><span style="font-size: 14pt;">Now a look at some of your personal social values</span><span lang="EN-US" style="font-size: 14pt;"> ...<o:p></o:p></span></div>
<div class="MsoNormal" style="background-color: white; background-position: initial initial; background-repeat: initial initial; margin-bottom: 0.0001pt;">
<br /></div>
<table border="1" cellpadding="0" class="MsoNormalTable" style="background: white; mso-cellspacing: 1.5pt; mso-yfti-tbllook: 1184;">
<tbody>
<tr>
<td style="padding: .75pt .75pt .75pt .75pt; width: 60.0%;" valign="top" width="60%">
<div class="MsoNormal" style="margin-bottom: 0.0001pt;">
<span style="font-size: 12pt;">Abortion, when the woman's life is not threatened,
should always be illegal.<o:p></o:p></span></div>
</td>
<td style="padding: .75pt .75pt .75pt .75pt; width: 40.0%;" valign="top" width="40%">
<div class="MsoNormal" style="margin-bottom: 0.0001pt;">
<span style="font-size: 12.0pt; mso-bidi-font-family: Calibri; mso-bidi-theme-font: minor-latin; mso-fareast-font-family: "Times New Roman"; mso-fareast-language: IN;"><input name="answer_22" type="radio" value="0" /></span><span style="font-size: 12.0pt; mso-bidi-font-family: Calibri; mso-bidi-theme-font: minor-latin; mso-fareast-font-family: "Times New Roman"; mso-fareast-language: IN;"> Strongly
Disagree<br />
</span><span style="font-size: 12.0pt; mso-bidi-font-family: Calibri; mso-bidi-theme-font: minor-latin; mso-fareast-font-family: "Times New Roman"; mso-fareast-language: IN;"><input name="answer_22" type="radio" value="1" /></span><span style="font-size: 12.0pt; mso-bidi-font-family: Calibri; mso-bidi-theme-font: minor-latin; mso-fareast-font-family: "Times New Roman"; mso-fareast-language: IN;"> Disagree<br />
</span><span style="font-size: 12.0pt; mso-bidi-font-family: Calibri; mso-bidi-theme-font: minor-latin; mso-fareast-font-family: "Times New Roman"; mso-fareast-language: IN;"><input name="answer_22" type="radio" value="2" /></span><span style="font-size: 12.0pt; mso-bidi-font-family: Calibri; mso-bidi-theme-font: minor-latin; mso-fareast-font-family: "Times New Roman"; mso-fareast-language: IN;"> Agree<br />
</span><span style="font-size: 12.0pt; mso-bidi-font-family: Calibri; mso-bidi-theme-font: minor-latin; mso-fareast-font-family: "Times New Roman"; mso-fareast-language: IN;"><input name="answer_22" type="radio" value="3" /></span><span style="font-size: 12.0pt; mso-bidi-font-family: Calibri; mso-bidi-theme-font: minor-latin; mso-fareast-font-family: "Times New Roman"; mso-fareast-language: IN;"> Strongly
Agree<o:p></o:p></span></div>
</td>
</tr>
<tr>
<td style="padding: .75pt .75pt .75pt .75pt; width: 60.0%;" valign="top" width="60%">
<div class="MsoNormal" style="margin-bottom: 0.0001pt;">
<span style="font-size: 12pt;">All authority should be questioned.<o:p></o:p></span></div>
</td>
<td style="padding: .75pt .75pt .75pt .75pt; width: 40.0%;" valign="top" width="40%">
<div class="MsoNormal" style="margin-bottom: 0.0001pt;">
<span style="font-size: 12.0pt; mso-bidi-font-family: Calibri; mso-bidi-theme-font: minor-latin; mso-fareast-font-family: "Times New Roman"; mso-fareast-language: IN;"><input name="answer_23" type="radio" value="0" /></span><span style="font-size: 12.0pt; mso-bidi-font-family: Calibri; mso-bidi-theme-font: minor-latin; mso-fareast-font-family: "Times New Roman"; mso-fareast-language: IN;"> Strongly
Disagree<br />
</span><span style="font-size: 12.0pt; mso-bidi-font-family: Calibri; mso-bidi-theme-font: minor-latin; mso-fareast-font-family: "Times New Roman"; mso-fareast-language: IN;"><input name="answer_23" type="radio" value="1" /></span><span style="font-size: 12.0pt; mso-bidi-font-family: Calibri; mso-bidi-theme-font: minor-latin; mso-fareast-font-family: "Times New Roman"; mso-fareast-language: IN;"> Disagree<br />
</span><span style="font-size: 12.0pt; mso-bidi-font-family: Calibri; mso-bidi-theme-font: minor-latin; mso-fareast-font-family: "Times New Roman"; mso-fareast-language: IN;"><input name="answer_23" type="radio" value="2" /></span><span style="font-size: 12.0pt; mso-bidi-font-family: Calibri; mso-bidi-theme-font: minor-latin; mso-fareast-font-family: "Times New Roman"; mso-fareast-language: IN;"> Agree<br />
</span><span style="font-size: 12.0pt; mso-bidi-font-family: Calibri; mso-bidi-theme-font: minor-latin; mso-fareast-font-family: "Times New Roman"; mso-fareast-language: IN;"><input name="answer_23" type="radio" value="3" /></span><span style="font-size: 12.0pt; mso-bidi-font-family: Calibri; mso-bidi-theme-font: minor-latin; mso-fareast-font-family: "Times New Roman"; mso-fareast-language: IN;"> Strongly
Agree<o:p></o:p></span></div>
</td>
</tr>
<tr>
<td style="padding: .75pt .75pt .75pt .75pt; width: 60.0%;" valign="top" width="60%">
<div class="MsoNormal" style="margin-bottom: 0.0001pt;">
<span style="font-size: 12pt;">An eye for an eye and a tooth for a tooth.<o:p></o:p></span></div>
</td>
<td style="padding: .75pt .75pt .75pt .75pt; width: 40.0%;" valign="top" width="40%">
<div class="MsoNormal" style="margin-bottom: 0.0001pt;">
<span style="font-size: 12.0pt; mso-bidi-font-family: Calibri; mso-bidi-theme-font: minor-latin; mso-fareast-font-family: "Times New Roman"; mso-fareast-language: IN;"><input name="answer_24" type="radio" value="0" /></span><span style="font-size: 12.0pt; mso-bidi-font-family: Calibri; mso-bidi-theme-font: minor-latin; mso-fareast-font-family: "Times New Roman"; mso-fareast-language: IN;"> Strongly
Disagree<br />
</span><span style="font-size: 12.0pt; mso-bidi-font-family: Calibri; mso-bidi-theme-font: minor-latin; mso-fareast-font-family: "Times New Roman"; mso-fareast-language: IN;"><input name="answer_24" type="radio" value="1" /></span><span style="font-size: 12.0pt; mso-bidi-font-family: Calibri; mso-bidi-theme-font: minor-latin; mso-fareast-font-family: "Times New Roman"; mso-fareast-language: IN;"> Disagree<br />
</span><span style="font-size: 12.0pt; mso-bidi-font-family: Calibri; mso-bidi-theme-font: minor-latin; mso-fareast-font-family: "Times New Roman"; mso-fareast-language: IN;"><input name="answer_24" type="radio" value="2" /></span><span style="font-size: 12.0pt; mso-bidi-font-family: Calibri; mso-bidi-theme-font: minor-latin; mso-fareast-font-family: "Times New Roman"; mso-fareast-language: IN;"> Agree<br />
</span><span style="font-size: 12.0pt; mso-bidi-font-family: Calibri; mso-bidi-theme-font: minor-latin; mso-fareast-font-family: "Times New Roman"; mso-fareast-language: IN;"><input name="answer_24" type="radio" value="3" /></span><span style="font-size: 12.0pt; mso-bidi-font-family: Calibri; mso-bidi-theme-font: minor-latin; mso-fareast-font-family: "Times New Roman"; mso-fareast-language: IN;"> Strongly
Agree<o:p></o:p></span></div>
</td>
</tr>
<tr>
<td style="padding: .75pt .75pt .75pt .75pt; width: 60.0%;" valign="top" width="60%">
<div class="MsoNormal" style="margin-bottom: 0.0001pt;">
<span style="font-size: 12pt;">Taxpayers should not be expected to prop up any
theatres or museums that cannot survive on a commercial basis.<o:p></o:p></span></div>
</td>
<td style="padding: .75pt .75pt .75pt .75pt; width: 40.0%;" valign="top" width="40%">
<div class="MsoNormal" style="margin-bottom: 0.0001pt;">
<span style="font-size: 12.0pt; mso-bidi-font-family: Calibri; mso-bidi-theme-font: minor-latin; mso-fareast-font-family: "Times New Roman"; mso-fareast-language: IN;"><input name="answer_25" type="radio" value="0" /></span><span style="font-size: 12.0pt; mso-bidi-font-family: Calibri; mso-bidi-theme-font: minor-latin; mso-fareast-font-family: "Times New Roman"; mso-fareast-language: IN;"> Strongly
Disagree<br />
</span><span style="font-size: 12.0pt; mso-bidi-font-family: Calibri; mso-bidi-theme-font: minor-latin; mso-fareast-font-family: "Times New Roman"; mso-fareast-language: IN;"><input name="answer_25" type="radio" value="1" /></span><span style="font-size: 12.0pt; mso-bidi-font-family: Calibri; mso-bidi-theme-font: minor-latin; mso-fareast-font-family: "Times New Roman"; mso-fareast-language: IN;"> Disagree<br />
</span><span style="font-size: 12.0pt; mso-bidi-font-family: Calibri; mso-bidi-theme-font: minor-latin; mso-fareast-font-family: "Times New Roman"; mso-fareast-language: IN;"><input name="answer_25" type="radio" value="2" /></span><span style="font-size: 12.0pt; mso-bidi-font-family: Calibri; mso-bidi-theme-font: minor-latin; mso-fareast-font-family: "Times New Roman"; mso-fareast-language: IN;"> Agree<br />
</span><span style="font-size: 12.0pt; mso-bidi-font-family: Calibri; mso-bidi-theme-font: minor-latin; mso-fareast-font-family: "Times New Roman"; mso-fareast-language: IN;"><input name="answer_25" type="radio" value="3" /></span><span style="font-size: 12.0pt; mso-bidi-font-family: Calibri; mso-bidi-theme-font: minor-latin; mso-fareast-font-family: "Times New Roman"; mso-fareast-language: IN;"> Strongly
Agree<o:p></o:p></span></div>
</td>
</tr>
<tr>
<td style="padding: .75pt .75pt .75pt .75pt; width: 60.0%;" valign="top" width="60%">
<div class="MsoNormal" style="margin-bottom: 0.0001pt;">
<span style="font-size: 12pt;">Schools should not make classroom attendance compulsory.<o:p></o:p></span></div>
</td>
<td style="padding: .75pt .75pt .75pt .75pt; width: 40.0%;" valign="top" width="40%">
<div class="MsoNormal" style="margin-bottom: 0.0001pt;">
<span style="font-size: 12.0pt; mso-bidi-font-family: Calibri; mso-bidi-theme-font: minor-latin; mso-fareast-font-family: "Times New Roman"; mso-fareast-language: IN;"><input name="answer_26" type="radio" value="0" /></span><span style="font-size: 12.0pt; mso-bidi-font-family: Calibri; mso-bidi-theme-font: minor-latin; mso-fareast-font-family: "Times New Roman"; mso-fareast-language: IN;"> Strongly
Disagree<br />
</span><span style="font-size: 12.0pt; mso-bidi-font-family: Calibri; mso-bidi-theme-font: minor-latin; mso-fareast-font-family: "Times New Roman"; mso-fareast-language: IN;"><input name="answer_26" type="radio" value="1" /></span><span style="font-size: 12.0pt; mso-bidi-font-family: Calibri; mso-bidi-theme-font: minor-latin; mso-fareast-font-family: "Times New Roman"; mso-fareast-language: IN;"> Disagree<br />
</span><span style="font-size: 12.0pt; mso-bidi-font-family: Calibri; mso-bidi-theme-font: minor-latin; mso-fareast-font-family: "Times New Roman"; mso-fareast-language: IN;"><input name="answer_26" type="radio" value="2" /></span><span style="font-size: 12.0pt; mso-bidi-font-family: Calibri; mso-bidi-theme-font: minor-latin; mso-fareast-font-family: "Times New Roman"; mso-fareast-language: IN;"> Agree<br />
</span><span style="font-size: 12.0pt; mso-bidi-font-family: Calibri; mso-bidi-theme-font: minor-latin; mso-fareast-font-family: "Times New Roman"; mso-fareast-language: IN;"><input name="answer_26" type="radio" value="3" /></span><span style="font-size: 12.0pt; mso-bidi-font-family: Calibri; mso-bidi-theme-font: minor-latin; mso-fareast-font-family: "Times New Roman"; mso-fareast-language: IN;"> Strongly
Agree<o:p></o:p></span></div>
</td>
</tr>
<tr>
<td style="padding: .75pt .75pt .75pt .75pt; width: 60.0%;" valign="top" width="60%">
<div class="MsoNormal" style="margin-bottom: 0.0001pt;">
<span style="font-size: 12pt;">All people have their rights, but it is better for
all of us that different sorts of people should keep to their own kind.<o:p></o:p></span></div>
</td>
<td style="padding: .75pt .75pt .75pt .75pt; width: 40.0%;" valign="top" width="40%">
<div class="MsoNormal" style="margin-bottom: 0.0001pt;">
<span style="font-size: 12.0pt; mso-bidi-font-family: Calibri; mso-bidi-theme-font: minor-latin; mso-fareast-font-family: "Times New Roman"; mso-fareast-language: IN;"><input name="answer_27" type="radio" value="0" /></span><span style="font-size: 12.0pt; mso-bidi-font-family: Calibri; mso-bidi-theme-font: minor-latin; mso-fareast-font-family: "Times New Roman"; mso-fareast-language: IN;"> Strongly
Disagree<br />
</span><span style="font-size: 12.0pt; mso-bidi-font-family: Calibri; mso-bidi-theme-font: minor-latin; mso-fareast-font-family: "Times New Roman"; mso-fareast-language: IN;"><input name="answer_27" type="radio" value="1" /></span><span style="font-size: 12.0pt; mso-bidi-font-family: Calibri; mso-bidi-theme-font: minor-latin; mso-fareast-font-family: "Times New Roman"; mso-fareast-language: IN;"> Disagree<br />
</span><span style="font-size: 12.0pt; mso-bidi-font-family: Calibri; mso-bidi-theme-font: minor-latin; mso-fareast-font-family: "Times New Roman"; mso-fareast-language: IN;"><input name="answer_27" type="radio" value="2" /></span><span style="font-size: 12.0pt; mso-bidi-font-family: Calibri; mso-bidi-theme-font: minor-latin; mso-fareast-font-family: "Times New Roman"; mso-fareast-language: IN;"> Agree<br />
</span><span style="font-size: 12.0pt; mso-bidi-font-family: Calibri; mso-bidi-theme-font: minor-latin; mso-fareast-font-family: "Times New Roman"; mso-fareast-language: IN;"><input name="answer_27" type="radio" value="3" /></span><span style="font-size: 12.0pt; mso-bidi-font-family: Calibri; mso-bidi-theme-font: minor-latin; mso-fareast-font-family: "Times New Roman"; mso-fareast-language: IN;"> Strongly
Agree<o:p></o:p></span></div>
</td>
</tr>
<tr>
<td style="padding: .75pt .75pt .75pt .75pt; width: 60.0%;" valign="top" width="60%">
<div class="MsoNormal" style="margin-bottom: 0.0001pt;">
<span style="font-size: 12pt;">Good parents sometimes have to spank their children.<o:p></o:p></span></div>
</td>
<td style="padding: .75pt .75pt .75pt .75pt; width: 40.0%;" valign="top" width="40%">
<div class="MsoNormal" style="margin-bottom: 0.0001pt;">
<span style="font-size: 12.0pt; mso-bidi-font-family: Calibri; mso-bidi-theme-font: minor-latin; mso-fareast-font-family: "Times New Roman"; mso-fareast-language: IN;"><input name="answer_28" type="radio" value="0" /></span><span style="font-size: 12.0pt; mso-bidi-font-family: Calibri; mso-bidi-theme-font: minor-latin; mso-fareast-font-family: "Times New Roman"; mso-fareast-language: IN;"> Strongly
Disagree<br />
</span><span style="font-size: 12.0pt; mso-bidi-font-family: Calibri; mso-bidi-theme-font: minor-latin; mso-fareast-font-family: "Times New Roman"; mso-fareast-language: IN;"><input name="answer_28" type="radio" value="1" /></span><span style="font-size: 12.0pt; mso-bidi-font-family: Calibri; mso-bidi-theme-font: minor-latin; mso-fareast-font-family: "Times New Roman"; mso-fareast-language: IN;"> Disagree<br />
</span><span style="font-size: 12.0pt; mso-bidi-font-family: Calibri; mso-bidi-theme-font: minor-latin; mso-fareast-font-family: "Times New Roman"; mso-fareast-language: IN;"><input name="answer_28" type="radio" value="2" /></span><span style="font-size: 12.0pt; mso-bidi-font-family: Calibri; mso-bidi-theme-font: minor-latin; mso-fareast-font-family: "Times New Roman"; mso-fareast-language: IN;"> Agree<br />
</span><span style="font-size: 12.0pt; mso-bidi-font-family: Calibri; mso-bidi-theme-font: minor-latin; mso-fareast-font-family: "Times New Roman"; mso-fareast-language: IN;"><input name="answer_28" type="radio" value="3" /></span><span style="font-size: 12.0pt; mso-bidi-font-family: Calibri; mso-bidi-theme-font: minor-latin; mso-fareast-font-family: "Times New Roman"; mso-fareast-language: IN;"> Strongly
Agree<o:p></o:p></span></div>
</td>
</tr>
<tr>
<td style="padding: .75pt .75pt .75pt .75pt; width: 60.0%;" valign="top" width="60%">
<div class="MsoNormal" style="margin-bottom: 0.0001pt;">
<span style="font-size: 12pt;">It's natural for children to keep some secrets from
their parents.<o:p></o:p></span></div>
</td>
<td style="padding: .75pt .75pt .75pt .75pt; width: 40.0%;" valign="top" width="40%">
<div class="MsoNormal" style="margin-bottom: 0.0001pt;">
<span style="font-size: 12.0pt; mso-bidi-font-family: Calibri; mso-bidi-theme-font: minor-latin; mso-fareast-font-family: "Times New Roman"; mso-fareast-language: IN;"><input name="answer_29" type="radio" value="0" /></span><span style="font-size: 12.0pt; mso-bidi-font-family: Calibri; mso-bidi-theme-font: minor-latin; mso-fareast-font-family: "Times New Roman"; mso-fareast-language: IN;"> Strongly
Disagree<br />
</span><span style="font-size: 12.0pt; mso-bidi-font-family: Calibri; mso-bidi-theme-font: minor-latin; mso-fareast-font-family: "Times New Roman"; mso-fareast-language: IN;"><input name="answer_29" type="radio" value="1" /></span><span style="font-size: 12.0pt; mso-bidi-font-family: Calibri; mso-bidi-theme-font: minor-latin; mso-fareast-font-family: "Times New Roman"; mso-fareast-language: IN;"> Disagree<br />
</span><span style="font-size: 12.0pt; mso-bidi-font-family: Calibri; mso-bidi-theme-font: minor-latin; mso-fareast-font-family: "Times New Roman"; mso-fareast-language: IN;"><input name="answer_29" type="radio" value="2" /></span><span style="font-size: 12.0pt; mso-bidi-font-family: Calibri; mso-bidi-theme-font: minor-latin; mso-fareast-font-family: "Times New Roman"; mso-fareast-language: IN;"> Agree<br />
</span><span style="font-size: 12.0pt; mso-bidi-font-family: Calibri; mso-bidi-theme-font: minor-latin; mso-fareast-font-family: "Times New Roman"; mso-fareast-language: IN;"><input name="answer_29" type="radio" value="3" /></span><span style="font-size: 12.0pt; mso-bidi-font-family: Calibri; mso-bidi-theme-font: minor-latin; mso-fareast-font-family: "Times New Roman"; mso-fareast-language: IN;"> Strongly
Agree<o:p></o:p></span></div>
</td>
</tr>
<tr>
<td style="padding: .75pt .75pt .75pt .75pt; width: 60.0%;" valign="top" width="60%">
<div class="MsoNormal" style="margin-bottom: 0.0001pt;">
<span style="font-size: 12pt;">Possessing marijuana for personal use should not be
a criminal offence.<o:p></o:p></span></div>
</td>
<td style="padding: .75pt .75pt .75pt .75pt; width: 40.0%;" valign="top" width="40%">
<div class="MsoNormal" style="margin-bottom: 0.0001pt;">
<span style="font-size: 12.0pt; mso-bidi-font-family: Calibri; mso-bidi-theme-font: minor-latin; mso-fareast-font-family: "Times New Roman"; mso-fareast-language: IN;"><input name="answer_30" type="radio" value="0" /></span><span style="font-size: 12.0pt; mso-bidi-font-family: Calibri; mso-bidi-theme-font: minor-latin; mso-fareast-font-family: "Times New Roman"; mso-fareast-language: IN;"> Strongly
Disagree<br />
</span><span style="font-size: 12.0pt; mso-bidi-font-family: Calibri; mso-bidi-theme-font: minor-latin; mso-fareast-font-family: "Times New Roman"; mso-fareast-language: IN;"><input name="answer_30" type="radio" value="1" /></span><span style="font-size: 12.0pt; mso-bidi-font-family: Calibri; mso-bidi-theme-font: minor-latin; mso-fareast-font-family: "Times New Roman"; mso-fareast-language: IN;"> Disagree<br />
</span><span style="font-size: 12.0pt; mso-bidi-font-family: Calibri; mso-bidi-theme-font: minor-latin; mso-fareast-font-family: "Times New Roman"; mso-fareast-language: IN;"><input name="answer_30" type="radio" value="2" /></span><span style="font-size: 12.0pt; mso-bidi-font-family: Calibri; mso-bidi-theme-font: minor-latin; mso-fareast-font-family: "Times New Roman"; mso-fareast-language: IN;"> Agree<br />
</span><span style="font-size: 12.0pt; mso-bidi-font-family: Calibri; mso-bidi-theme-font: minor-latin; mso-fareast-font-family: "Times New Roman"; mso-fareast-language: IN;"><input name="answer_30" type="radio" value="3" /></span><span style="font-size: 12.0pt; mso-bidi-font-family: Calibri; mso-bidi-theme-font: minor-latin; mso-fareast-font-family: "Times New Roman"; mso-fareast-language: IN;"> Strongly
Agree<o:p></o:p></span></div>
</td>
</tr>
<tr>
<td style="padding: .75pt .75pt .75pt .75pt; width: 60.0%;" valign="top" width="60%">
<div class="MsoNormal" style="margin-bottom: 0.0001pt;">
<span style="font-size: 12pt;">The prime function of schooling should be to equip
the future generation to find jobs.<o:p></o:p></span></div>
</td>
<td style="padding: .75pt .75pt .75pt .75pt; width: 40.0%;" valign="top" width="40%">
<div class="MsoNormal" style="margin-bottom: 0.0001pt;">
<span style="font-size: 12.0pt; mso-bidi-font-family: Calibri; mso-bidi-theme-font: minor-latin; mso-fareast-font-family: "Times New Roman"; mso-fareast-language: IN;"><input name="answer_31" type="radio" value="0" /></span><span style="font-size: 12.0pt; mso-bidi-font-family: Calibri; mso-bidi-theme-font: minor-latin; mso-fareast-font-family: "Times New Roman"; mso-fareast-language: IN;"> Strongly
Disagree<br />
</span><span style="font-size: 12.0pt; mso-bidi-font-family: Calibri; mso-bidi-theme-font: minor-latin; mso-fareast-font-family: "Times New Roman"; mso-fareast-language: IN;"><input name="answer_31" type="radio" value="1" /></span><span style="font-size: 12.0pt; mso-bidi-font-family: Calibri; mso-bidi-theme-font: minor-latin; mso-fareast-font-family: "Times New Roman"; mso-fareast-language: IN;"> Disagree<br />
</span><span style="font-size: 12.0pt; mso-bidi-font-family: Calibri; mso-bidi-theme-font: minor-latin; mso-fareast-font-family: "Times New Roman"; mso-fareast-language: IN;"><input name="answer_31" type="radio" value="2" /></span><span style="font-size: 12.0pt; mso-bidi-font-family: Calibri; mso-bidi-theme-font: minor-latin; mso-fareast-font-family: "Times New Roman"; mso-fareast-language: IN;"> Agree<br />
</span><span style="font-size: 12.0pt; mso-bidi-font-family: Calibri; mso-bidi-theme-font: minor-latin; mso-fareast-font-family: "Times New Roman"; mso-fareast-language: IN;"><input name="answer_31" type="radio" value="3" /></span><span style="font-size: 12.0pt; mso-bidi-font-family: Calibri; mso-bidi-theme-font: minor-latin; mso-fareast-font-family: "Times New Roman"; mso-fareast-language: IN;"> Strongly
Agree<o:p></o:p></span></div>
</td>
</tr>
<tr>
<td style="padding: .75pt .75pt .75pt .75pt; width: 60.0%;" valign="top" width="60%">
<div class="MsoNormal" style="margin-bottom: 0.0001pt;">
<span style="font-size: 12pt;">People with serious inheritable disabilities should
not be allowed to reproduce.<o:p></o:p></span></div>
</td>
<td style="padding: .75pt .75pt .75pt .75pt; width: 40.0%;" valign="top" width="40%">
<div class="MsoNormal" style="margin-bottom: 0.0001pt;">
<span style="font-size: 12.0pt; mso-bidi-font-family: Calibri; mso-bidi-theme-font: minor-latin; mso-fareast-font-family: "Times New Roman"; mso-fareast-language: IN;"><input name="answer_32" type="radio" value="0" /></span><span style="font-size: 12.0pt; mso-bidi-font-family: Calibri; mso-bidi-theme-font: minor-latin; mso-fareast-font-family: "Times New Roman"; mso-fareast-language: IN;"> Strongly
Disagree<br />
</span><span style="font-size: 12.0pt; mso-bidi-font-family: Calibri; mso-bidi-theme-font: minor-latin; mso-fareast-font-family: "Times New Roman"; mso-fareast-language: IN;"><input name="answer_32" type="radio" value="1" /></span><span style="font-size: 12.0pt; mso-bidi-font-family: Calibri; mso-bidi-theme-font: minor-latin; mso-fareast-font-family: "Times New Roman"; mso-fareast-language: IN;"> Disagree<br />
</span><span style="font-size: 12.0pt; mso-bidi-font-family: Calibri; mso-bidi-theme-font: minor-latin; mso-fareast-font-family: "Times New Roman"; mso-fareast-language: IN;"><input name="answer_32" type="radio" value="2" /></span><span style="font-size: 12.0pt; mso-bidi-font-family: Calibri; mso-bidi-theme-font: minor-latin; mso-fareast-font-family: "Times New Roman"; mso-fareast-language: IN;"> Agree<br />
</span><span style="font-size: 12.0pt; mso-bidi-font-family: Calibri; mso-bidi-theme-font: minor-latin; mso-fareast-font-family: "Times New Roman"; mso-fareast-language: IN;"><input name="answer_32" type="radio" value="3" /></span><span style="font-size: 12.0pt; mso-bidi-font-family: Calibri; mso-bidi-theme-font: minor-latin; mso-fareast-font-family: "Times New Roman"; mso-fareast-language: IN;"> Strongly
Agree<o:p></o:p></span></div>
</td>
</tr>
<tr>
<td style="padding: .75pt .75pt .75pt .75pt; width: 60.0%;" valign="top" width="60%">
<div class="MsoNormal" style="margin-bottom: 0.0001pt;">
<span style="font-size: 12pt;">The most important thing for children to learn is to
accept discipline.<o:p></o:p></span></div>
</td>
<td style="padding: .75pt .75pt .75pt .75pt; width: 40.0%;" valign="top" width="40%">
<div class="MsoNormal" style="margin-bottom: 0.0001pt;">
<span style="font-size: 12.0pt; mso-bidi-font-family: Calibri; mso-bidi-theme-font: minor-latin; mso-fareast-font-family: "Times New Roman"; mso-fareast-language: IN;"><input name="answer_33" type="radio" value="0" /></span><span style="font-size: 12.0pt; mso-bidi-font-family: Calibri; mso-bidi-theme-font: minor-latin; mso-fareast-font-family: "Times New Roman"; mso-fareast-language: IN;"> Strongly
Disagree<br />
</span><span style="font-size: 12.0pt; mso-bidi-font-family: Calibri; mso-bidi-theme-font: minor-latin; mso-fareast-font-family: "Times New Roman"; mso-fareast-language: IN;"><input name="answer_33" type="radio" value="1" /></span><span style="font-size: 12.0pt; mso-bidi-font-family: Calibri; mso-bidi-theme-font: minor-latin; mso-fareast-font-family: "Times New Roman"; mso-fareast-language: IN;"> Disagree<br />
</span><span style="font-size: 12.0pt; mso-bidi-font-family: Calibri; mso-bidi-theme-font: minor-latin; mso-fareast-font-family: "Times New Roman"; mso-fareast-language: IN;"><input name="answer_33" type="radio" value="2" /></span><span style="font-size: 12.0pt; mso-bidi-font-family: Calibri; mso-bidi-theme-font: minor-latin; mso-fareast-font-family: "Times New Roman"; mso-fareast-language: IN;"> Agree<br />
</span><span style="font-size: 12.0pt; mso-bidi-font-family: Calibri; mso-bidi-theme-font: minor-latin; mso-fareast-font-family: "Times New Roman"; mso-fareast-language: IN;"><input name="answer_33" type="radio" value="3" /></span><span style="font-size: 12.0pt; mso-bidi-font-family: Calibri; mso-bidi-theme-font: minor-latin; mso-fareast-font-family: "Times New Roman"; mso-fareast-language: IN;"> Strongly
Agree<o:p></o:p></span></div>
</td>
</tr>
<tr>
<td style="padding: .75pt .75pt .75pt .75pt; width: 60.0%;" valign="top" width="60%">
<div class="MsoNormal" style="margin-bottom: 0.0001pt;">
<span style="font-size: 12pt;">There are no savage and civilised peoples; there are
only different cultures.<o:p></o:p></span></div>
</td>
<td style="padding: .75pt .75pt .75pt .75pt; width: 40.0%;" valign="top" width="40%">
<div class="MsoNormal" style="margin-bottom: 0.0001pt;">
<span style="font-size: 12.0pt; mso-bidi-font-family: Calibri; mso-bidi-theme-font: minor-latin; mso-fareast-font-family: "Times New Roman"; mso-fareast-language: IN;"><input name="answer_34" type="radio" value="0" /></span><span style="font-size: 12.0pt; mso-bidi-font-family: Calibri; mso-bidi-theme-font: minor-latin; mso-fareast-font-family: "Times New Roman"; mso-fareast-language: IN;"> Strongly
Disagree<br />
</span><span style="font-size: 12.0pt; mso-bidi-font-family: Calibri; mso-bidi-theme-font: minor-latin; mso-fareast-font-family: "Times New Roman"; mso-fareast-language: IN;"><input name="answer_34" type="radio" value="1" /></span><span style="font-size: 12.0pt; mso-bidi-font-family: Calibri; mso-bidi-theme-font: minor-latin; mso-fareast-font-family: "Times New Roman"; mso-fareast-language: IN;"> Disagree<br />
</span><span style="font-size: 12.0pt; mso-bidi-font-family: Calibri; mso-bidi-theme-font: minor-latin; mso-fareast-font-family: "Times New Roman"; mso-fareast-language: IN;"><input name="answer_34" type="radio" value="2" /></span><span style="font-size: 12.0pt; mso-bidi-font-family: Calibri; mso-bidi-theme-font: minor-latin; mso-fareast-font-family: "Times New Roman"; mso-fareast-language: IN;"> Agree<br />
</span><span style="font-size: 12.0pt; mso-bidi-font-family: Calibri; mso-bidi-theme-font: minor-latin; mso-fareast-font-family: "Times New Roman"; mso-fareast-language: IN;"><input name="answer_34" type="radio" value="3" /></span><span style="font-size: 12.0pt; mso-bidi-font-family: Calibri; mso-bidi-theme-font: minor-latin; mso-fareast-font-family: "Times New Roman"; mso-fareast-language: IN;"> Strongly
Agree<o:p></o:p></span></div>
</td>
</tr>
<tr>
<td style="padding: .75pt .75pt .75pt .75pt; width: 60.0%;" valign="top" width="60%">
<div class="MsoNormal" style="margin-bottom: 0.0001pt;">
<span style="font-size: 12pt;">Those who are able to work, and refuse the
opportunity, should not expect society's support.<o:p></o:p></span></div>
</td>
<td style="padding: .75pt .75pt .75pt .75pt; width: 40.0%;" valign="top" width="40%">
<div class="MsoNormal" style="margin-bottom: 0.0001pt;">
<span style="font-size: 12.0pt; mso-bidi-font-family: Calibri; mso-bidi-theme-font: minor-latin; mso-fareast-font-family: "Times New Roman"; mso-fareast-language: IN;"><input name="answer_35" type="radio" value="0" /></span><span style="font-size: 12.0pt; mso-bidi-font-family: Calibri; mso-bidi-theme-font: minor-latin; mso-fareast-font-family: "Times New Roman"; mso-fareast-language: IN;"> Strongly
Disagree<br />
</span><span style="font-size: 12.0pt; mso-bidi-font-family: Calibri; mso-bidi-theme-font: minor-latin; mso-fareast-font-family: "Times New Roman"; mso-fareast-language: IN;"><input name="answer_35" type="radio" value="1" /></span><span style="font-size: 12.0pt; mso-bidi-font-family: Calibri; mso-bidi-theme-font: minor-latin; mso-fareast-font-family: "Times New Roman"; mso-fareast-language: IN;"> Disagree<br />
</span><span style="font-size: 12.0pt; mso-bidi-font-family: Calibri; mso-bidi-theme-font: minor-latin; mso-fareast-font-family: "Times New Roman"; mso-fareast-language: IN;"><input name="answer_35" type="radio" value="2" /></span><span style="font-size: 12.0pt; mso-bidi-font-family: Calibri; mso-bidi-theme-font: minor-latin; mso-fareast-font-family: "Times New Roman"; mso-fareast-language: IN;"> Agree<br />
</span><span style="font-size: 12.0pt; mso-bidi-font-family: Calibri; mso-bidi-theme-font: minor-latin; mso-fareast-font-family: "Times New Roman"; mso-fareast-language: IN;"><input name="answer_35" type="radio" value="3" /></span><span style="font-size: 12.0pt; mso-bidi-font-family: Calibri; mso-bidi-theme-font: minor-latin; mso-fareast-font-family: "Times New Roman"; mso-fareast-language: IN;"> Strongly
Agree<o:p></o:p></span></div>
</td>
</tr>
<tr>
<td style="padding: .75pt .75pt .75pt .75pt; width: 60.0%;" valign="top" width="60%">
<div class="MsoNormal" style="margin-bottom: 0.0001pt;">
<span style="font-size: 12pt;">When you are troubled, it's better not to think
about it, but to keep busy with more cheerful things.<o:p></o:p></span></div>
</td>
<td style="padding: .75pt .75pt .75pt .75pt; width: 40.0%;" valign="top" width="40%">
<div class="MsoNormal" style="margin-bottom: 0.0001pt;">
<span style="font-size: 12.0pt; mso-bidi-font-family: Calibri; mso-bidi-theme-font: minor-latin; mso-fareast-font-family: "Times New Roman"; mso-fareast-language: IN;"><input name="answer_36" type="radio" value="0" /></span><span style="font-size: 12.0pt; mso-bidi-font-family: Calibri; mso-bidi-theme-font: minor-latin; mso-fareast-font-family: "Times New Roman"; mso-fareast-language: IN;"> Strongly
Disagree<br />
</span><span style="font-size: 12.0pt; mso-bidi-font-family: Calibri; mso-bidi-theme-font: minor-latin; mso-fareast-font-family: "Times New Roman"; mso-fareast-language: IN;"><input name="answer_36" type="radio" value="1" /></span><span style="font-size: 12.0pt; mso-bidi-font-family: Calibri; mso-bidi-theme-font: minor-latin; mso-fareast-font-family: "Times New Roman"; mso-fareast-language: IN;"> Disagree<br />
</span><span style="font-size: 12.0pt; mso-bidi-font-family: Calibri; mso-bidi-theme-font: minor-latin; mso-fareast-font-family: "Times New Roman"; mso-fareast-language: IN;"><input name="answer_36" type="radio" value="2" /></span><span style="font-size: 12.0pt; mso-bidi-font-family: Calibri; mso-bidi-theme-font: minor-latin; mso-fareast-font-family: "Times New Roman"; mso-fareast-language: IN;"> Agree<br />
</span><span style="font-size: 12.0pt; mso-bidi-font-family: Calibri; mso-bidi-theme-font: minor-latin; mso-fareast-font-family: "Times New Roman"; mso-fareast-language: IN;"><input name="answer_36" type="radio" value="3" /></span><span style="font-size: 12.0pt; mso-bidi-font-family: Calibri; mso-bidi-theme-font: minor-latin; mso-fareast-font-family: "Times New Roman"; mso-fareast-language: IN;"> Strongly
Agree<o:p></o:p></span></div>
</td>
</tr>
<tr>
<td style="padding: .75pt .75pt .75pt .75pt; width: 60.0%;" valign="top" width="60%">
<div class="MsoNormal" style="margin-bottom: 0.0001pt;">
<span style="font-size: 12pt;">First-generation immigrants can never be fully
integrated within their new country.<o:p></o:p></span></div>
</td>
<td style="padding: .75pt .75pt .75pt .75pt; width: 40.0%;" valign="top" width="40%">
<div class="MsoNormal" style="margin-bottom: 0.0001pt;">
<span style="font-size: 12.0pt; mso-bidi-font-family: Calibri; mso-bidi-theme-font: minor-latin; mso-fareast-font-family: "Times New Roman"; mso-fareast-language: IN;"><input name="answer_37" type="radio" value="0" /></span><span style="font-size: 12.0pt; mso-bidi-font-family: Calibri; mso-bidi-theme-font: minor-latin; mso-fareast-font-family: "Times New Roman"; mso-fareast-language: IN;"> Strongly
Disagree<br />
</span><span style="font-size: 12.0pt; mso-bidi-font-family: Calibri; mso-bidi-theme-font: minor-latin; mso-fareast-font-family: "Times New Roman"; mso-fareast-language: IN;"><input name="answer_37" type="radio" value="1" /></span><span style="font-size: 12.0pt; mso-bidi-font-family: Calibri; mso-bidi-theme-font: minor-latin; mso-fareast-font-family: "Times New Roman"; mso-fareast-language: IN;"> Disagree<br />
</span><span style="font-size: 12.0pt; mso-bidi-font-family: Calibri; mso-bidi-theme-font: minor-latin; mso-fareast-font-family: "Times New Roman"; mso-fareast-language: IN;"><input name="answer_37" type="radio" value="2" /></span><span style="font-size: 12.0pt; mso-bidi-font-family: Calibri; mso-bidi-theme-font: minor-latin; mso-fareast-font-family: "Times New Roman"; mso-fareast-language: IN;"> Agree<br />
</span><span style="font-size: 12.0pt; mso-bidi-font-family: Calibri; mso-bidi-theme-font: minor-latin; mso-fareast-font-family: "Times New Roman"; mso-fareast-language: IN;"><input name="answer_37" type="radio" value="3" /></span><span style="font-size: 12.0pt; mso-bidi-font-family: Calibri; mso-bidi-theme-font: minor-latin; mso-fareast-font-family: "Times New Roman"; mso-fareast-language: IN;"> Strongly
Agree<o:p></o:p></span></div>
</td>
</tr>
<tr>
<td style="padding: .75pt .75pt .75pt .75pt; width: 60.0%;" valign="top" width="60%">
<div class="MsoNormal" style="margin-bottom: 0.0001pt;">
<span style="font-size: 12pt;">What's good for the most successful corporations is
always, ultimately, good for all of us.<o:p></o:p></span></div>
</td>
<td style="padding: .75pt .75pt .75pt .75pt; width: 40.0%;" valign="top" width="40%">
<div class="MsoNormal" style="margin-bottom: 0.0001pt;">
<span style="font-size: 12.0pt; mso-bidi-font-family: Calibri; mso-bidi-theme-font: minor-latin; mso-fareast-font-family: "Times New Roman"; mso-fareast-language: IN;"><input name="answer_38" type="radio" value="0" /></span><span style="font-size: 12.0pt; mso-bidi-font-family: Calibri; mso-bidi-theme-font: minor-latin; mso-fareast-font-family: "Times New Roman"; mso-fareast-language: IN;"> Strongly
Disagree<br />
</span><span style="font-size: 12.0pt; mso-bidi-font-family: Calibri; mso-bidi-theme-font: minor-latin; mso-fareast-font-family: "Times New Roman"; mso-fareast-language: IN;"><input name="answer_38" type="radio" value="1" /></span><span style="font-size: 12.0pt; mso-bidi-font-family: Calibri; mso-bidi-theme-font: minor-latin; mso-fareast-font-family: "Times New Roman"; mso-fareast-language: IN;"> Disagree<br />
</span><span style="font-size: 12.0pt; mso-bidi-font-family: Calibri; mso-bidi-theme-font: minor-latin; mso-fareast-font-family: "Times New Roman"; mso-fareast-language: IN;"><input name="answer_38" type="radio" value="2" /></span><span style="font-size: 12.0pt; mso-bidi-font-family: Calibri; mso-bidi-theme-font: minor-latin; mso-fareast-font-family: "Times New Roman"; mso-fareast-language: IN;"> Agree<br />
</span><span style="font-size: 12.0pt; mso-bidi-font-family: Calibri; mso-bidi-theme-font: minor-latin; mso-fareast-font-family: "Times New Roman"; mso-fareast-language: IN;"><input name="answer_38" type="radio" value="3" /></span><span style="font-size: 12.0pt; mso-bidi-font-family: Calibri; mso-bidi-theme-font: minor-latin; mso-fareast-font-family: "Times New Roman"; mso-fareast-language: IN;"> Strongly
Agree<o:p></o:p></span></div>
</td>
</tr>
<tr>
<td style="padding: .75pt .75pt .75pt .75pt; width: 60.0%;" valign="top" width="60%">
<div class="MsoNormal" style="margin-bottom: 0.0001pt;">
<span style="font-size: 12pt;">No broadcasting institution, however independent its
content, should receive public funding.<o:p></o:p></span></div>
</td>
<td style="padding: .75pt .75pt .75pt .75pt; width: 40.0%;" valign="top" width="40%">
<div class="MsoNormal" style="margin-bottom: 0.0001pt;">
<span style="font-size: 12.0pt; mso-bidi-font-family: Calibri; mso-bidi-theme-font: minor-latin; mso-fareast-font-family: "Times New Roman"; mso-fareast-language: IN;"><input name="answer_39" type="radio" value="0" /></span><span style="font-size: 12.0pt; mso-bidi-font-family: Calibri; mso-bidi-theme-font: minor-latin; mso-fareast-font-family: "Times New Roman"; mso-fareast-language: IN;"> Strongly
Disagree<br />
</span><span style="font-size: 12.0pt; mso-bidi-font-family: Calibri; mso-bidi-theme-font: minor-latin; mso-fareast-font-family: "Times New Roman"; mso-fareast-language: IN;"><input name="answer_39" type="radio" value="1" /></span><span style="font-size: 12.0pt; mso-bidi-font-family: Calibri; mso-bidi-theme-font: minor-latin; mso-fareast-font-family: "Times New Roman"; mso-fareast-language: IN;"> Disagree<br />
</span><span style="font-size: 12.0pt; mso-bidi-font-family: Calibri; mso-bidi-theme-font: minor-latin; mso-fareast-font-family: "Times New Roman"; mso-fareast-language: IN;"><input name="answer_39" type="radio" value="2" /></span><span style="font-size: 12.0pt; mso-bidi-font-family: Calibri; mso-bidi-theme-font: minor-latin; mso-fareast-font-family: "Times New Roman"; mso-fareast-language: IN;"> Agree<br />
</span><span style="font-size: 12.0pt; mso-bidi-font-family: Calibri; mso-bidi-theme-font: minor-latin; mso-fareast-font-family: "Times New Roman"; mso-fareast-language: IN;"><input name="answer_39" type="radio" value="3" /></span><span style="font-size: 12.0pt; mso-bidi-font-family: Calibri; mso-bidi-theme-font: minor-latin; mso-fareast-font-family: "Times New Roman"; mso-fareast-language: IN;"> Strongly
Agree<o:p></o:p></span></div>
</td>
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</tbody></table>
<div class="MsoNormal" style="background-color: white; background-position: initial initial; background-repeat: initial initial; margin-bottom: 0.0001pt;">
<br /></div>
<div class="MsoNormal" style="background-color: white; background-position: initial initial; background-repeat: initial initial; margin-bottom: 0.0001pt;">
<br /></div>
<div class="MsoNormal" style="background-color: white; background-position: initial initial; background-repeat: initial initial; margin-bottom: 0.0001pt;">
<b><span style="font-size: 14pt;">Page 4</span></b><b><span lang="EN-US" style="font-size: 14pt;">: </span></b><span style="font-size: 14pt;">… and how you see the wider society</span><span lang="EN-US" style="font-size: 14pt;"><o:p></o:p></span></div>
<div class="MsoNormal" style="background-color: white; background-position: initial initial; background-repeat: initial initial; margin-bottom: 0.0001pt;">
<br /></div>
<table border="1" cellpadding="0" class="MsoNormalTable" style="background: white; mso-cellspacing: 1.5pt; mso-yfti-tbllook: 1184;">
<tbody>
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<td style="padding: .75pt .75pt .75pt .75pt; width: 60.0%;" valign="top" width="60%">
<div class="MsoNormal" style="margin-bottom: 0.0001pt;">
<span style="font-size: 12pt;">Our civil liberties are being excessively curbed in
the name of counter-terrorism.<o:p></o:p></span></div>
</td>
<td style="padding: .75pt .75pt .75pt .75pt; width: 40.0%;" valign="top" width="40%">
<div class="MsoNormal" style="margin-bottom: 0.0001pt;">
<span style="font-size: 12.0pt; mso-bidi-font-family: Calibri; mso-bidi-theme-font: minor-latin; mso-fareast-font-family: "Times New Roman"; mso-fareast-language: IN;"><input name="answer_40" type="radio" value="0" /></span><span style="font-size: 12.0pt; mso-bidi-font-family: Calibri; mso-bidi-theme-font: minor-latin; mso-fareast-font-family: "Times New Roman"; mso-fareast-language: IN;"> Strongly
Disagree<br />
</span><span style="font-size: 12.0pt; mso-bidi-font-family: Calibri; mso-bidi-theme-font: minor-latin; mso-fareast-font-family: "Times New Roman"; mso-fareast-language: IN;"><input name="answer_40" type="radio" value="1" /></span><span style="font-size: 12.0pt; mso-bidi-font-family: Calibri; mso-bidi-theme-font: minor-latin; mso-fareast-font-family: "Times New Roman"; mso-fareast-language: IN;"> Disagree<br />
</span><span style="font-size: 12.0pt; mso-bidi-font-family: Calibri; mso-bidi-theme-font: minor-latin; mso-fareast-font-family: "Times New Roman"; mso-fareast-language: IN;"><input name="answer_40" type="radio" value="2" /></span><span style="font-size: 12.0pt; mso-bidi-font-family: Calibri; mso-bidi-theme-font: minor-latin; mso-fareast-font-family: "Times New Roman"; mso-fareast-language: IN;"> Agree<br />
</span><span style="font-size: 12.0pt; mso-bidi-font-family: Calibri; mso-bidi-theme-font: minor-latin; mso-fareast-font-family: "Times New Roman"; mso-fareast-language: IN;"><input name="answer_40" type="radio" value="3" /></span><span style="font-size: 12.0pt; mso-bidi-font-family: Calibri; mso-bidi-theme-font: minor-latin; mso-fareast-font-family: "Times New Roman"; mso-fareast-language: IN;"> Strongly
Agree<o:p></o:p></span></div>
</td>
</tr>
<tr>
<td style="padding: .75pt .75pt .75pt .75pt; width: 60.0%;" valign="top" width="60%">
<div class="MsoNormal" style="margin-bottom: 0.0001pt;">
<span style="font-size: 12pt;">A significant advantage of a one-party state is that
it avoids all the arguments that delay progress in a democratic political
system.<o:p></o:p></span></div>
</td>
<td style="padding: .75pt .75pt .75pt .75pt; width: 40.0%;" valign="top" width="40%">
<div class="MsoNormal" style="margin-bottom: 0.0001pt;">
<span style="font-size: 12.0pt; mso-bidi-font-family: Calibri; mso-bidi-theme-font: minor-latin; mso-fareast-font-family: "Times New Roman"; mso-fareast-language: IN;"><input name="answer_41" type="radio" value="0" /></span><span style="font-size: 12.0pt; mso-bidi-font-family: Calibri; mso-bidi-theme-font: minor-latin; mso-fareast-font-family: "Times New Roman"; mso-fareast-language: IN;"> Strongly
Disagree<br />
</span><span style="font-size: 12.0pt; mso-bidi-font-family: Calibri; mso-bidi-theme-font: minor-latin; mso-fareast-font-family: "Times New Roman"; mso-fareast-language: IN;"><input name="answer_41" type="radio" value="1" /></span><span style="font-size: 12.0pt; mso-bidi-font-family: Calibri; mso-bidi-theme-font: minor-latin; mso-fareast-font-family: "Times New Roman"; mso-fareast-language: IN;"> Disagree<br />
</span><span style="font-size: 12.0pt; mso-bidi-font-family: Calibri; mso-bidi-theme-font: minor-latin; mso-fareast-font-family: "Times New Roman"; mso-fareast-language: IN;"><input name="answer_41" type="radio" value="2" /></span><span style="font-size: 12.0pt; mso-bidi-font-family: Calibri; mso-bidi-theme-font: minor-latin; mso-fareast-font-family: "Times New Roman"; mso-fareast-language: IN;"> Agree<br />
</span><span style="font-size: 12.0pt; mso-bidi-font-family: Calibri; mso-bidi-theme-font: minor-latin; mso-fareast-font-family: "Times New Roman"; mso-fareast-language: IN;"><input name="answer_41" type="radio" value="3" /></span><span style="font-size: 12.0pt; mso-bidi-font-family: Calibri; mso-bidi-theme-font: minor-latin; mso-fareast-font-family: "Times New Roman"; mso-fareast-language: IN;"> Strongly
Agree<o:p></o:p></span></div>
</td>
</tr>
<tr>
<td style="padding: .75pt .75pt .75pt .75pt; width: 60.0%;" valign="top" width="60%">
<div class="MsoNormal" style="margin-bottom: 0.0001pt;">
<span style="font-size: 12pt;">Although the electronic age makes official
surveillance easier, only wrongdoers need to be worried.<o:p></o:p></span></div>
</td>
<td style="padding: .75pt .75pt .75pt .75pt; width: 40.0%;" valign="top" width="40%">
<div class="MsoNormal" style="margin-bottom: 0.0001pt;">
<span style="font-size: 12.0pt; mso-bidi-font-family: Calibri; mso-bidi-theme-font: minor-latin; mso-fareast-font-family: "Times New Roman"; mso-fareast-language: IN;"><input name="answer_42" type="radio" value="0" /></span><span style="font-size: 12.0pt; mso-bidi-font-family: Calibri; mso-bidi-theme-font: minor-latin; mso-fareast-font-family: "Times New Roman"; mso-fareast-language: IN;"> Strongly
Disagree<br />
</span><span style="font-size: 12.0pt; mso-bidi-font-family: Calibri; mso-bidi-theme-font: minor-latin; mso-fareast-font-family: "Times New Roman"; mso-fareast-language: IN;"><input name="answer_42" type="radio" value="1" /></span><span style="font-size: 12.0pt; mso-bidi-font-family: Calibri; mso-bidi-theme-font: minor-latin; mso-fareast-font-family: "Times New Roman"; mso-fareast-language: IN;"> Disagree<br />
</span><span style="font-size: 12.0pt; mso-bidi-font-family: Calibri; mso-bidi-theme-font: minor-latin; mso-fareast-font-family: "Times New Roman"; mso-fareast-language: IN;"><input name="answer_42" type="radio" value="2" /></span><span style="font-size: 12.0pt; mso-bidi-font-family: Calibri; mso-bidi-theme-font: minor-latin; mso-fareast-font-family: "Times New Roman"; mso-fareast-language: IN;"> Agree<br />
</span><span style="font-size: 12.0pt; mso-bidi-font-family: Calibri; mso-bidi-theme-font: minor-latin; mso-fareast-font-family: "Times New Roman"; mso-fareast-language: IN;"><input name="answer_42" type="radio" value="3" /></span><span style="font-size: 12.0pt; mso-bidi-font-family: Calibri; mso-bidi-theme-font: minor-latin; mso-fareast-font-family: "Times New Roman"; mso-fareast-language: IN;"> Strongly
Agree<o:p></o:p></span></div>
</td>
</tr>
<tr>
<td style="padding: .75pt .75pt .75pt .75pt; width: 60.0%;" valign="top" width="60%">
<div class="MsoNormal" style="margin-bottom: 0.0001pt;">
<span style="font-size: 12pt;">The death penalty should be an option for the most
serious crimes.<o:p></o:p></span></div>
</td>
<td style="padding: .75pt .75pt .75pt .75pt; width: 40.0%;" valign="top" width="40%">
<div class="MsoNormal" style="margin-bottom: 0.0001pt;">
<span style="font-size: 12.0pt; mso-bidi-font-family: Calibri; mso-bidi-theme-font: minor-latin; mso-fareast-font-family: "Times New Roman"; mso-fareast-language: IN;"><input name="answer_43" type="radio" value="0" /></span><span style="font-size: 12.0pt; mso-bidi-font-family: Calibri; mso-bidi-theme-font: minor-latin; mso-fareast-font-family: "Times New Roman"; mso-fareast-language: IN;"> Strongly
Disagree<br />
</span><span style="font-size: 12.0pt; mso-bidi-font-family: Calibri; mso-bidi-theme-font: minor-latin; mso-fareast-font-family: "Times New Roman"; mso-fareast-language: IN;"><input name="answer_43" type="radio" value="1" /></span><span style="font-size: 12.0pt; mso-bidi-font-family: Calibri; mso-bidi-theme-font: minor-latin; mso-fareast-font-family: "Times New Roman"; mso-fareast-language: IN;"> Disagree<br />
</span><span style="font-size: 12.0pt; mso-bidi-font-family: Calibri; mso-bidi-theme-font: minor-latin; mso-fareast-font-family: "Times New Roman"; mso-fareast-language: IN;"><input name="answer_43" type="radio" value="2" /></span><span style="font-size: 12.0pt; mso-bidi-font-family: Calibri; mso-bidi-theme-font: minor-latin; mso-fareast-font-family: "Times New Roman"; mso-fareast-language: IN;"> Agree<br />
</span><span style="font-size: 12.0pt; mso-bidi-font-family: Calibri; mso-bidi-theme-font: minor-latin; mso-fareast-font-family: "Times New Roman"; mso-fareast-language: IN;"><input name="answer_43" type="radio" value="3" /></span><span style="font-size: 12.0pt; mso-bidi-font-family: Calibri; mso-bidi-theme-font: minor-latin; mso-fareast-font-family: "Times New Roman"; mso-fareast-language: IN;"> Strongly
Agree<o:p></o:p></span></div>
</td>
</tr>
<tr>
<td style="padding: .75pt .75pt .75pt .75pt; width: 60.0%;" valign="top" width="60%">
<div class="MsoNormal" style="margin-bottom: 0.0001pt;">
<span style="font-size: 12pt;">In a civilised society, one must always have people
above to be obeyed and people below to be commanded.<o:p></o:p></span></div>
</td>
<td style="padding: .75pt .75pt .75pt .75pt; width: 40.0%;" valign="top" width="40%">
<div class="MsoNormal" style="margin-bottom: 0.0001pt;">
<span style="font-size: 12.0pt; mso-bidi-font-family: Calibri; mso-bidi-theme-font: minor-latin; mso-fareast-font-family: "Times New Roman"; mso-fareast-language: IN;"><input name="answer_44" type="radio" value="0" /></span><span style="font-size: 12.0pt; mso-bidi-font-family: Calibri; mso-bidi-theme-font: minor-latin; mso-fareast-font-family: "Times New Roman"; mso-fareast-language: IN;"> Strongly
Disagree<br />
</span><span style="font-size: 12.0pt; mso-bidi-font-family: Calibri; mso-bidi-theme-font: minor-latin; mso-fareast-font-family: "Times New Roman"; mso-fareast-language: IN;"><input name="answer_44" type="radio" value="1" /></span><span style="font-size: 12.0pt; mso-bidi-font-family: Calibri; mso-bidi-theme-font: minor-latin; mso-fareast-font-family: "Times New Roman"; mso-fareast-language: IN;"> Disagree<br />
</span><span style="font-size: 12.0pt; mso-bidi-font-family: Calibri; mso-bidi-theme-font: minor-latin; mso-fareast-font-family: "Times New Roman"; mso-fareast-language: IN;"><input name="answer_44" type="radio" value="2" /></span><span style="font-size: 12.0pt; mso-bidi-font-family: Calibri; mso-bidi-theme-font: minor-latin; mso-fareast-font-family: "Times New Roman"; mso-fareast-language: IN;"> Agree<br />
</span><span style="font-size: 12.0pt; mso-bidi-font-family: Calibri; mso-bidi-theme-font: minor-latin; mso-fareast-font-family: "Times New Roman"; mso-fareast-language: IN;"><input name="answer_44" type="radio" value="3" /></span><span style="font-size: 12.0pt; mso-bidi-font-family: Calibri; mso-bidi-theme-font: minor-latin; mso-fareast-font-family: "Times New Roman"; mso-fareast-language: IN;"> Strongly
Agree<o:p></o:p></span></div>
</td>
</tr>
<tr>
<td style="padding: .75pt .75pt .75pt .75pt; width: 60.0%;" valign="top" width="60%">
<div class="MsoNormal" style="margin-bottom: 0.0001pt;">
<span style="font-size: 12pt;">Abstract art that doesn't represent anything
shouldn't be considered art at all.<o:p></o:p></span></div>
</td>
<td style="padding: .75pt .75pt .75pt .75pt; width: 40.0%;" valign="top" width="40%">
<div class="MsoNormal" style="margin-bottom: 0.0001pt;">
<span style="font-size: 12.0pt; mso-bidi-font-family: Calibri; mso-bidi-theme-font: minor-latin; mso-fareast-font-family: "Times New Roman"; mso-fareast-language: IN;"><input name="answer_45" type="radio" value="0" /></span><span style="font-size: 12.0pt; mso-bidi-font-family: Calibri; mso-bidi-theme-font: minor-latin; mso-fareast-font-family: "Times New Roman"; mso-fareast-language: IN;"> Strongly
Disagree<br />
</span><span style="font-size: 12.0pt; mso-bidi-font-family: Calibri; mso-bidi-theme-font: minor-latin; mso-fareast-font-family: "Times New Roman"; mso-fareast-language: IN;"><input name="answer_45" type="radio" value="1" /></span><span style="font-size: 12.0pt; mso-bidi-font-family: Calibri; mso-bidi-theme-font: minor-latin; mso-fareast-font-family: "Times New Roman"; mso-fareast-language: IN;"> Disagree<br />
</span><span style="font-size: 12.0pt; mso-bidi-font-family: Calibri; mso-bidi-theme-font: minor-latin; mso-fareast-font-family: "Times New Roman"; mso-fareast-language: IN;"><input name="answer_45" type="radio" value="2" /></span><span style="font-size: 12.0pt; mso-bidi-font-family: Calibri; mso-bidi-theme-font: minor-latin; mso-fareast-font-family: "Times New Roman"; mso-fareast-language: IN;"> Agree<br />
</span><span style="font-size: 12.0pt; mso-bidi-font-family: Calibri; mso-bidi-theme-font: minor-latin; mso-fareast-font-family: "Times New Roman"; mso-fareast-language: IN;"><input name="answer_45" type="radio" value="3" /></span><span style="font-size: 12.0pt; mso-bidi-font-family: Calibri; mso-bidi-theme-font: minor-latin; mso-fareast-font-family: "Times New Roman"; mso-fareast-language: IN;"> Strongly
Agree<o:p></o:p></span></div>
</td>
</tr>
<tr>
<td style="padding: .75pt .75pt .75pt .75pt; width: 60.0%;" valign="top" width="60%">
<div class="MsoNormal" style="margin-bottom: 0.0001pt;">
<span style="font-size: 12pt;">In criminal justice, punishment should be more
important than rehabilitation.<o:p></o:p></span></div>
</td>
<td style="padding: .75pt .75pt .75pt .75pt; width: 40.0%;" valign="top" width="40%">
<div class="MsoNormal" style="margin-bottom: 0.0001pt;">
<span style="font-size: 12.0pt; mso-bidi-font-family: Calibri; mso-bidi-theme-font: minor-latin; mso-fareast-font-family: "Times New Roman"; mso-fareast-language: IN;"><input name="answer_46" type="radio" value="0" /></span><span style="font-size: 12.0pt; mso-bidi-font-family: Calibri; mso-bidi-theme-font: minor-latin; mso-fareast-font-family: "Times New Roman"; mso-fareast-language: IN;"> Strongly
Disagree<br />
</span><span style="font-size: 12.0pt; mso-bidi-font-family: Calibri; mso-bidi-theme-font: minor-latin; mso-fareast-font-family: "Times New Roman"; mso-fareast-language: IN;"><input name="answer_46" type="radio" value="1" /></span><span style="font-size: 12.0pt; mso-bidi-font-family: Calibri; mso-bidi-theme-font: minor-latin; mso-fareast-font-family: "Times New Roman"; mso-fareast-language: IN;"> Disagree<br />
</span><span style="font-size: 12.0pt; mso-bidi-font-family: Calibri; mso-bidi-theme-font: minor-latin; mso-fareast-font-family: "Times New Roman"; mso-fareast-language: IN;"><input name="answer_46" type="radio" value="2" /></span><span style="font-size: 12.0pt; mso-bidi-font-family: Calibri; mso-bidi-theme-font: minor-latin; mso-fareast-font-family: "Times New Roman"; mso-fareast-language: IN;"> Agree<br />
</span><span style="font-size: 12.0pt; mso-bidi-font-family: Calibri; mso-bidi-theme-font: minor-latin; mso-fareast-font-family: "Times New Roman"; mso-fareast-language: IN;"><input name="answer_46" type="radio" value="3" /></span><span style="font-size: 12.0pt; mso-bidi-font-family: Calibri; mso-bidi-theme-font: minor-latin; mso-fareast-font-family: "Times New Roman"; mso-fareast-language: IN;"> Strongly
Agree<o:p></o:p></span></div>
</td>
</tr>
<tr>
<td style="padding: .75pt .75pt .75pt .75pt; width: 60.0%;" valign="top" width="60%">
<div class="MsoNormal" style="margin-bottom: 0.0001pt;">
<span style="font-size: 12pt;">It is a waste of time to try to rehabilitate some
criminals.<o:p></o:p></span></div>
</td>
<td style="padding: .75pt .75pt .75pt .75pt; width: 40.0%;" valign="top" width="40%">
<div class="MsoNormal" style="margin-bottom: 0.0001pt;">
<span style="font-size: 12.0pt; mso-bidi-font-family: Calibri; mso-bidi-theme-font: minor-latin; mso-fareast-font-family: "Times New Roman"; mso-fareast-language: IN;"><input name="answer_47" type="radio" value="0" /></span><span style="font-size: 12.0pt; mso-bidi-font-family: Calibri; mso-bidi-theme-font: minor-latin; mso-fareast-font-family: "Times New Roman"; mso-fareast-language: IN;"> Strongly
Disagree<br />
</span><span style="font-size: 12.0pt; mso-bidi-font-family: Calibri; mso-bidi-theme-font: minor-latin; mso-fareast-font-family: "Times New Roman"; mso-fareast-language: IN;"><input name="answer_47" type="radio" value="1" /></span><span style="font-size: 12.0pt; mso-bidi-font-family: Calibri; mso-bidi-theme-font: minor-latin; mso-fareast-font-family: "Times New Roman"; mso-fareast-language: IN;"> Disagree<br />
</span><span style="font-size: 12.0pt; mso-bidi-font-family: Calibri; mso-bidi-theme-font: minor-latin; mso-fareast-font-family: "Times New Roman"; mso-fareast-language: IN;"><input name="answer_47" type="radio" value="2" /></span><span style="font-size: 12.0pt; mso-bidi-font-family: Calibri; mso-bidi-theme-font: minor-latin; mso-fareast-font-family: "Times New Roman"; mso-fareast-language: IN;"> Agree<br />
</span><span style="font-size: 12.0pt; mso-bidi-font-family: Calibri; mso-bidi-theme-font: minor-latin; mso-fareast-font-family: "Times New Roman"; mso-fareast-language: IN;"><input name="answer_47" type="radio" value="3" /></span><span style="font-size: 12.0pt; mso-bidi-font-family: Calibri; mso-bidi-theme-font: minor-latin; mso-fareast-font-family: "Times New Roman"; mso-fareast-language: IN;"> Strongly
Agree<o:p></o:p></span></div>
</td>
</tr>
<tr>
<td style="padding: .75pt .75pt .75pt .75pt; width: 60.0%;" valign="top" width="60%">
<div class="MsoNormal" style="margin-bottom: 0.0001pt;">
<span style="font-size: 12pt;">The businessperson and the manufacturer are more
important than the writer and the artist.<o:p></o:p></span></div>
</td>
<td style="padding: .75pt .75pt .75pt .75pt; width: 40.0%;" valign="top" width="40%">
<div class="MsoNormal" style="margin-bottom: 0.0001pt;">
<span style="font-size: 12.0pt; mso-bidi-font-family: Calibri; mso-bidi-theme-font: minor-latin; mso-fareast-font-family: "Times New Roman"; mso-fareast-language: IN;"><input name="answer_48" type="radio" value="0" /></span><span style="font-size: 12.0pt; mso-bidi-font-family: Calibri; mso-bidi-theme-font: minor-latin; mso-fareast-font-family: "Times New Roman"; mso-fareast-language: IN;"> Strongly
Disagree<br />
</span><span style="font-size: 12.0pt; mso-bidi-font-family: Calibri; mso-bidi-theme-font: minor-latin; mso-fareast-font-family: "Times New Roman"; mso-fareast-language: IN;"><input name="answer_48" type="radio" value="1" /></span><span style="font-size: 12.0pt; mso-bidi-font-family: Calibri; mso-bidi-theme-font: minor-latin; mso-fareast-font-family: "Times New Roman"; mso-fareast-language: IN;"> Disagree<br />
</span><span style="font-size: 12.0pt; mso-bidi-font-family: Calibri; mso-bidi-theme-font: minor-latin; mso-fareast-font-family: "Times New Roman"; mso-fareast-language: IN;"><input name="answer_48" type="radio" value="2" /></span><span style="font-size: 12.0pt; mso-bidi-font-family: Calibri; mso-bidi-theme-font: minor-latin; mso-fareast-font-family: "Times New Roman"; mso-fareast-language: IN;"> Agree<br />
</span><span style="font-size: 12.0pt; mso-bidi-font-family: Calibri; mso-bidi-theme-font: minor-latin; mso-fareast-font-family: "Times New Roman"; mso-fareast-language: IN;"><input name="answer_48" type="radio" value="3" /></span><span style="font-size: 12.0pt; mso-bidi-font-family: Calibri; mso-bidi-theme-font: minor-latin; mso-fareast-font-family: "Times New Roman"; mso-fareast-language: IN;"> Strongly
Agree<o:p></o:p></span></div>
</td>
</tr>
<tr>
<td style="padding: .75pt .75pt .75pt .75pt; width: 60.0%;" valign="top" width="60%">
<div class="MsoNormal" style="margin-bottom: 0.0001pt;">
<span style="font-size: 12pt;">Mothers may have careers, but their first duty is to
be homemakers.<o:p></o:p></span></div>
</td>
<td style="padding: .75pt .75pt .75pt .75pt; width: 40.0%;" valign="top" width="40%">
<div class="MsoNormal" style="margin-bottom: 0.0001pt;">
<span style="font-size: 12.0pt; mso-bidi-font-family: Calibri; mso-bidi-theme-font: minor-latin; mso-fareast-font-family: "Times New Roman"; mso-fareast-language: IN;"><input name="answer_49" type="radio" value="0" /></span><span style="font-size: 12.0pt; mso-bidi-font-family: Calibri; mso-bidi-theme-font: minor-latin; mso-fareast-font-family: "Times New Roman"; mso-fareast-language: IN;"> Strongly
Disagree<br />
</span><span style="font-size: 12.0pt; mso-bidi-font-family: Calibri; mso-bidi-theme-font: minor-latin; mso-fareast-font-family: "Times New Roman"; mso-fareast-language: IN;"><input name="answer_49" type="radio" value="1" /></span><span style="font-size: 12.0pt; mso-bidi-font-family: Calibri; mso-bidi-theme-font: minor-latin; mso-fareast-font-family: "Times New Roman"; mso-fareast-language: IN;"> Disagree<br />
</span><span style="font-size: 12.0pt; mso-bidi-font-family: Calibri; mso-bidi-theme-font: minor-latin; mso-fareast-font-family: "Times New Roman"; mso-fareast-language: IN;"><input name="answer_49" type="radio" value="2" /></span><span style="font-size: 12.0pt; mso-bidi-font-family: Calibri; mso-bidi-theme-font: minor-latin; mso-fareast-font-family: "Times New Roman"; mso-fareast-language: IN;"> Agree<br />
</span><span style="font-size: 12.0pt; mso-bidi-font-family: Calibri; mso-bidi-theme-font: minor-latin; mso-fareast-font-family: "Times New Roman"; mso-fareast-language: IN;"><input name="answer_49" type="radio" value="3" /></span><span style="font-size: 12.0pt; mso-bidi-font-family: Calibri; mso-bidi-theme-font: minor-latin; mso-fareast-font-family: "Times New Roman"; mso-fareast-language: IN;"> Strongly
Agree<o:p></o:p></span></div>
</td>
</tr>
<tr>
<td style="padding: .75pt .75pt .75pt .75pt; width: 60.0%;" valign="top" width="60%">
<div class="MsoNormal" style="margin-bottom: 0.0001pt;">
<span style="font-size: 12pt;">Multinational companies are unethically exploiting
the plant genetic resources of developing countries.<o:p></o:p></span></div>
</td>
<td style="padding: .75pt .75pt .75pt .75pt; width: 40.0%;" valign="top" width="40%">
<div class="MsoNormal" style="margin-bottom: 0.0001pt;">
<span style="font-size: 12.0pt; mso-bidi-font-family: Calibri; mso-bidi-theme-font: minor-latin; mso-fareast-font-family: "Times New Roman"; mso-fareast-language: IN;"><input name="answer_50" type="radio" value="0" /></span><span style="font-size: 12.0pt; mso-bidi-font-family: Calibri; mso-bidi-theme-font: minor-latin; mso-fareast-font-family: "Times New Roman"; mso-fareast-language: IN;"> Strongly
Disagree<br />
</span><span style="font-size: 12.0pt; mso-bidi-font-family: Calibri; mso-bidi-theme-font: minor-latin; mso-fareast-font-family: "Times New Roman"; mso-fareast-language: IN;"><input name="answer_50" type="radio" value="1" /></span><span style="font-size: 12.0pt; mso-bidi-font-family: Calibri; mso-bidi-theme-font: minor-latin; mso-fareast-font-family: "Times New Roman"; mso-fareast-language: IN;"> Disagree<br />
</span><span style="font-size: 12.0pt; mso-bidi-font-family: Calibri; mso-bidi-theme-font: minor-latin; mso-fareast-font-family: "Times New Roman"; mso-fareast-language: IN;"><input name="answer_50" type="radio" value="2" /></span><span style="font-size: 12.0pt; mso-bidi-font-family: Calibri; mso-bidi-theme-font: minor-latin; mso-fareast-font-family: "Times New Roman"; mso-fareast-language: IN;"> Agree<br />
</span><span style="font-size: 12.0pt; mso-bidi-font-family: Calibri; mso-bidi-theme-font: minor-latin; mso-fareast-font-family: "Times New Roman"; mso-fareast-language: IN;"><input name="answer_50" type="radio" value="3" /></span><span style="font-size: 12.0pt; mso-bidi-font-family: Calibri; mso-bidi-theme-font: minor-latin; mso-fareast-font-family: "Times New Roman"; mso-fareast-language: IN;"> Strongly
Agree<o:p></o:p></span></div>
</td>
</tr>
<tr>
<td style="padding: .75pt .75pt .75pt .75pt; width: 60.0%;" valign="top" width="60%">
<div class="MsoNormal" style="margin-bottom: 0.0001pt;">
<span style="font-size: 12pt;">Making peace with the establishment is an important
aspect of maturity.<o:p></o:p></span></div>
</td>
<td style="padding: .75pt .75pt .75pt .75pt; width: 40.0%;" valign="top" width="40%">
<div class="MsoNormal" style="margin-bottom: 0.0001pt;">
<span style="font-size: 12.0pt; mso-bidi-font-family: Calibri; mso-bidi-theme-font: minor-latin; mso-fareast-font-family: "Times New Roman"; mso-fareast-language: IN;"><input name="answer_51" type="radio" value="0" /></span><span style="font-size: 12.0pt; mso-bidi-font-family: Calibri; mso-bidi-theme-font: minor-latin; mso-fareast-font-family: "Times New Roman"; mso-fareast-language: IN;"> Strongly
Disagree<br />
</span><span style="font-size: 12.0pt; mso-bidi-font-family: Calibri; mso-bidi-theme-font: minor-latin; mso-fareast-font-family: "Times New Roman"; mso-fareast-language: IN;"><input name="answer_51" type="radio" value="1" /></span><span style="font-size: 12.0pt; mso-bidi-font-family: Calibri; mso-bidi-theme-font: minor-latin; mso-fareast-font-family: "Times New Roman"; mso-fareast-language: IN;"> Disagree<br />
</span><span style="font-size: 12.0pt; mso-bidi-font-family: Calibri; mso-bidi-theme-font: minor-latin; mso-fareast-font-family: "Times New Roman"; mso-fareast-language: IN;"><input name="answer_51" type="radio" value="2" /></span><span style="font-size: 12.0pt; mso-bidi-font-family: Calibri; mso-bidi-theme-font: minor-latin; mso-fareast-font-family: "Times New Roman"; mso-fareast-language: IN;"> Agree<br />
</span><span style="font-size: 12.0pt; mso-bidi-font-family: Calibri; mso-bidi-theme-font: minor-latin; mso-fareast-font-family: "Times New Roman"; mso-fareast-language: IN;"><input name="answer_51" type="radio" value="3" /></span><span style="font-size: 12.0pt; mso-bidi-font-family: Calibri; mso-bidi-theme-font: minor-latin; mso-fareast-font-family: "Times New Roman"; mso-fareast-language: IN;"> Strongly
Agree<o:p></o:p></span></div>
</td>
</tr>
</tbody></table>
<div class="MsoNormal" style="background-color: white; background-position: initial initial; background-repeat: initial initial; margin-bottom: 0.0001pt;">
<br /></div>
<div class="MsoNormal" style="background-color: white; background-position: initial initial; background-repeat: initial initial; margin-bottom: 0.0001pt;">
<br /></div>
<div class="MsoNormal" style="background-color: white; background-position: initial initial; background-repeat: initial initial; margin-bottom: 0.0001pt;">
<b><span style="font-size: 14pt;">Page 5</span></b><b><span lang="EN-US" style="font-size: 14pt;">: </span></b><span style="font-size: 14pt;">If you got through that okay, you'll find these
propositions on religion a breeze.</span><span lang="EN-US" style="font-size: 14pt;"><o:p></o:p></span></div>
<div class="MsoNormal" style="background-color: white; background-position: initial initial; background-repeat: initial initial; margin-bottom: 0.0001pt;">
<br /></div>
<table border="1" cellpadding="0" class="MsoNormalTable" style="background: white; mso-cellspacing: 1.5pt; mso-yfti-tbllook: 1184;">
<tbody>
<tr>
<td style="padding: .75pt .75pt .75pt .75pt; width: 60.0%;" valign="top" width="60%">
<div class="MsoNormal" style="margin-bottom: 0.0001pt;">
<span style="font-size: 12pt;">Astrology accurately explains many things.<o:p></o:p></span></div>
</td>
<td style="padding: .75pt .75pt .75pt .75pt; width: 40.0%;" valign="top" width="40%">
<div class="MsoNormal" style="margin-bottom: 0.0001pt;">
<span style="font-size: 12.0pt; mso-bidi-font-family: Calibri; mso-bidi-theme-font: minor-latin; mso-fareast-font-family: "Times New Roman"; mso-fareast-language: IN;"><input name="answer_52" type="radio" value="0" /></span><span style="font-size: 12.0pt; mso-bidi-font-family: Calibri; mso-bidi-theme-font: minor-latin; mso-fareast-font-family: "Times New Roman"; mso-fareast-language: IN;"> Strongly
Disagree<br />
</span><span style="font-size: 12.0pt; mso-bidi-font-family: Calibri; mso-bidi-theme-font: minor-latin; mso-fareast-font-family: "Times New Roman"; mso-fareast-language: IN;"><input name="answer_52" type="radio" value="1" /></span><span style="font-size: 12.0pt; mso-bidi-font-family: Calibri; mso-bidi-theme-font: minor-latin; mso-fareast-font-family: "Times New Roman"; mso-fareast-language: IN;"> Disagree<br />
</span><span style="font-size: 12.0pt; mso-bidi-font-family: Calibri; mso-bidi-theme-font: minor-latin; mso-fareast-font-family: "Times New Roman"; mso-fareast-language: IN;"><input name="answer_52" type="radio" value="2" /></span><span style="font-size: 12.0pt; mso-bidi-font-family: Calibri; mso-bidi-theme-font: minor-latin; mso-fareast-font-family: "Times New Roman"; mso-fareast-language: IN;"> Agree<br />
</span><span style="font-size: 12.0pt; mso-bidi-font-family: Calibri; mso-bidi-theme-font: minor-latin; mso-fareast-font-family: "Times New Roman"; mso-fareast-language: IN;"><input name="answer_52" type="radio" value="3" /></span><span style="font-size: 12.0pt; mso-bidi-font-family: Calibri; mso-bidi-theme-font: minor-latin; mso-fareast-font-family: "Times New Roman"; mso-fareast-language: IN;"> Strongly
Agree<o:p></o:p></span></div>
</td>
</tr>
<tr>
<td style="padding: .75pt .75pt .75pt .75pt; width: 60.0%;" valign="top" width="60%">
<div class="MsoNormal" style="margin-bottom: 0.0001pt;">
<span style="font-size: 12pt;">You cannot be moral without being religious.<o:p></o:p></span></div>
</td>
<td style="padding: .75pt .75pt .75pt .75pt; width: 40.0%;" valign="top" width="40%">
<div class="MsoNormal" style="margin-bottom: 0.0001pt;">
<span style="font-size: 12.0pt; mso-bidi-font-family: Calibri; mso-bidi-theme-font: minor-latin; mso-fareast-font-family: "Times New Roman"; mso-fareast-language: IN;"><input name="answer_53" type="radio" value="0" /></span><span style="font-size: 12.0pt; mso-bidi-font-family: Calibri; mso-bidi-theme-font: minor-latin; mso-fareast-font-family: "Times New Roman"; mso-fareast-language: IN;"> Strongly
Disagree<br />
</span><span style="font-size: 12.0pt; mso-bidi-font-family: Calibri; mso-bidi-theme-font: minor-latin; mso-fareast-font-family: "Times New Roman"; mso-fareast-language: IN;"><input name="answer_53" type="radio" value="1" /></span><span style="font-size: 12.0pt; mso-bidi-font-family: Calibri; mso-bidi-theme-font: minor-latin; mso-fareast-font-family: "Times New Roman"; mso-fareast-language: IN;"> Disagree<br />
</span><span style="font-size: 12.0pt; mso-bidi-font-family: Calibri; mso-bidi-theme-font: minor-latin; mso-fareast-font-family: "Times New Roman"; mso-fareast-language: IN;"><input name="answer_53" type="radio" value="2" /></span><span style="font-size: 12.0pt; mso-bidi-font-family: Calibri; mso-bidi-theme-font: minor-latin; mso-fareast-font-family: "Times New Roman"; mso-fareast-language: IN;"> Agree<br />
</span><span style="font-size: 12.0pt; mso-bidi-font-family: Calibri; mso-bidi-theme-font: minor-latin; mso-fareast-font-family: "Times New Roman"; mso-fareast-language: IN;"><input name="answer_53" type="radio" value="3" /></span><span style="font-size: 12.0pt; mso-bidi-font-family: Calibri; mso-bidi-theme-font: minor-latin; mso-fareast-font-family: "Times New Roman"; mso-fareast-language: IN;"> Strongly
Agree<o:p></o:p></span></div>
</td>
</tr>
<tr>
<td style="padding: .75pt .75pt .75pt .75pt; width: 60.0%;" valign="top" width="60%">
<div class="MsoNormal" style="margin-bottom: 0.0001pt;">
<span style="font-size: 12pt;">Charity is better than social security as a means of
helping the genuinely disadvantaged.<o:p></o:p></span></div>
</td>
<td style="padding: .75pt .75pt .75pt .75pt; width: 40.0%;" valign="top" width="40%">
<div class="MsoNormal" style="margin-bottom: 0.0001pt;">
<span style="font-size: 12.0pt; mso-bidi-font-family: Calibri; mso-bidi-theme-font: minor-latin; mso-fareast-font-family: "Times New Roman"; mso-fareast-language: IN;"><input name="answer_54" type="radio" value="0" /></span><span style="font-size: 12.0pt; mso-bidi-font-family: Calibri; mso-bidi-theme-font: minor-latin; mso-fareast-font-family: "Times New Roman"; mso-fareast-language: IN;"> Strongly
Disagree<br />
</span><span style="font-size: 12.0pt; mso-bidi-font-family: Calibri; mso-bidi-theme-font: minor-latin; mso-fareast-font-family: "Times New Roman"; mso-fareast-language: IN;"><input name="answer_54" type="radio" value="1" /></span><span style="font-size: 12.0pt; mso-bidi-font-family: Calibri; mso-bidi-theme-font: minor-latin; mso-fareast-font-family: "Times New Roman"; mso-fareast-language: IN;"> Disagree<br />
</span><span style="font-size: 12.0pt; mso-bidi-font-family: Calibri; mso-bidi-theme-font: minor-latin; mso-fareast-font-family: "Times New Roman"; mso-fareast-language: IN;"><input name="answer_54" type="radio" value="2" /></span><span style="font-size: 12.0pt; mso-bidi-font-family: Calibri; mso-bidi-theme-font: minor-latin; mso-fareast-font-family: "Times New Roman"; mso-fareast-language: IN;"> Agree<br />
</span><span style="font-size: 12.0pt; mso-bidi-font-family: Calibri; mso-bidi-theme-font: minor-latin; mso-fareast-font-family: "Times New Roman"; mso-fareast-language: IN;"><input name="answer_54" type="radio" value="3" /></span><span style="font-size: 12.0pt; mso-bidi-font-family: Calibri; mso-bidi-theme-font: minor-latin; mso-fareast-font-family: "Times New Roman"; mso-fareast-language: IN;"> Strongly
Agree<o:p></o:p></span></div>
</td>
</tr>
<tr>
<td style="padding: .75pt .75pt .75pt .75pt; width: 60.0%;" valign="top" width="60%">
<div class="MsoNormal" style="margin-bottom: 0.0001pt;">
<span style="font-size: 12pt;">Some people are naturally unlucky.<o:p></o:p></span></div>
</td>
<td style="padding: .75pt .75pt .75pt .75pt; width: 40.0%;" valign="top" width="40%">
<div class="MsoNormal" style="margin-bottom: 0.0001pt;">
<span style="font-size: 12.0pt; mso-bidi-font-family: Calibri; mso-bidi-theme-font: minor-latin; mso-fareast-font-family: "Times New Roman"; mso-fareast-language: IN;"><input name="answer_55" type="radio" value="0" /></span><span style="font-size: 12.0pt; mso-bidi-font-family: Calibri; mso-bidi-theme-font: minor-latin; mso-fareast-font-family: "Times New Roman"; mso-fareast-language: IN;"> Strongly
Disagree<br />
</span><span style="font-size: 12.0pt; mso-bidi-font-family: Calibri; mso-bidi-theme-font: minor-latin; mso-fareast-font-family: "Times New Roman"; mso-fareast-language: IN;"><input name="answer_55" type="radio" value="1" /></span><span style="font-size: 12.0pt; mso-bidi-font-family: Calibri; mso-bidi-theme-font: minor-latin; mso-fareast-font-family: "Times New Roman"; mso-fareast-language: IN;"> Disagree<br />
</span><span style="font-size: 12.0pt; mso-bidi-font-family: Calibri; mso-bidi-theme-font: minor-latin; mso-fareast-font-family: "Times New Roman"; mso-fareast-language: IN;"><input name="answer_55" type="radio" value="2" /></span><span style="font-size: 12.0pt; mso-bidi-font-family: Calibri; mso-bidi-theme-font: minor-latin; mso-fareast-font-family: "Times New Roman"; mso-fareast-language: IN;"> Agree<br />
</span><span style="font-size: 12.0pt; mso-bidi-font-family: Calibri; mso-bidi-theme-font: minor-latin; mso-fareast-font-family: "Times New Roman"; mso-fareast-language: IN;"><input name="answer_55" type="radio" value="3" /></span><span style="font-size: 12.0pt; mso-bidi-font-family: Calibri; mso-bidi-theme-font: minor-latin; mso-fareast-font-family: "Times New Roman"; mso-fareast-language: IN;"> Strongly
Agree<o:p></o:p></span></div>
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<div class="MsoNormal" style="margin-bottom: 0.0001pt;">
<span style="font-size: 12pt;">It is important that my child's school instills
religious values.<o:p></o:p></span></div>
</td>
<td style="padding: .75pt .75pt .75pt .75pt; width: 40.0%;" valign="top" width="40%">
<div class="MsoNormal" style="margin-bottom: 0.0001pt;">
<span style="font-size: 12.0pt; mso-bidi-font-family: Calibri; mso-bidi-theme-font: minor-latin; mso-fareast-font-family: "Times New Roman"; mso-fareast-language: IN;"><input name="answer_56" type="radio" value="0" /></span><span style="font-size: 12.0pt; mso-bidi-font-family: Calibri; mso-bidi-theme-font: minor-latin; mso-fareast-font-family: "Times New Roman"; mso-fareast-language: IN;"> Strongly
Disagree<br />
</span><span style="font-size: 12.0pt; mso-bidi-font-family: Calibri; mso-bidi-theme-font: minor-latin; mso-fareast-font-family: "Times New Roman"; mso-fareast-language: IN;"><input name="answer_56" type="radio" value="1" /></span><span style="font-size: 12.0pt; mso-bidi-font-family: Calibri; mso-bidi-theme-font: minor-latin; mso-fareast-font-family: "Times New Roman"; mso-fareast-language: IN;"> Disagree<br />
</span><span style="font-size: 12.0pt; mso-bidi-font-family: Calibri; mso-bidi-theme-font: minor-latin; mso-fareast-font-family: "Times New Roman"; mso-fareast-language: IN;"><input name="answer_56" type="radio" value="2" /></span><span style="font-size: 12.0pt; mso-bidi-font-family: Calibri; mso-bidi-theme-font: minor-latin; mso-fareast-font-family: "Times New Roman"; mso-fareast-language: IN;"> Agree<br />
</span><span style="font-size: 12.0pt; mso-bidi-font-family: Calibri; mso-bidi-theme-font: minor-latin; mso-fareast-font-family: "Times New Roman"; mso-fareast-language: IN;"><input name="answer_56" type="radio" value="3" /></span><span style="font-size: 12.0pt; mso-bidi-font-family: Calibri; mso-bidi-theme-font: minor-latin; mso-fareast-font-family: "Times New Roman"; mso-fareast-language: IN;"> Strongly
Agree<o:p></o:p></span></div>
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<br /></div>
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<br /></div>
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<b><span style="font-size: 14pt;">Page 6</span></b><b><span lang="EN-US" style="font-size: 14pt;">: </span></b><span style="font-size: 14pt;">Finally, a look at sex.</span><span lang="EN-US" style="font-size: 14pt;"><o:p></o:p></span></div>
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<br /></div>
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<span style="font-size: 12pt;">Sex outside marriage is usually immoral.<o:p></o:p></span></div>
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<td style="padding: .75pt .75pt .75pt .75pt; width: 40.0%;" valign="top" width="40%">
<div class="MsoNormal" style="margin-bottom: 0.0001pt;">
<span style="font-size: 12.0pt; mso-bidi-font-family: Calibri; mso-bidi-theme-font: minor-latin; mso-fareast-font-family: "Times New Roman"; mso-fareast-language: IN;"><input name="answer_57" type="radio" value="0" /></span><span style="font-size: 12.0pt; mso-bidi-font-family: Calibri; mso-bidi-theme-font: minor-latin; mso-fareast-font-family: "Times New Roman"; mso-fareast-language: IN;"> Strongly
Disagree<br />
</span><span style="font-size: 12.0pt; mso-bidi-font-family: Calibri; mso-bidi-theme-font: minor-latin; mso-fareast-font-family: "Times New Roman"; mso-fareast-language: IN;"><input name="answer_57" type="radio" value="1" /></span><span style="font-size: 12.0pt; mso-bidi-font-family: Calibri; mso-bidi-theme-font: minor-latin; mso-fareast-font-family: "Times New Roman"; mso-fareast-language: IN;"> Disagree<br />
</span><span style="font-size: 12.0pt; mso-bidi-font-family: Calibri; mso-bidi-theme-font: minor-latin; mso-fareast-font-family: "Times New Roman"; mso-fareast-language: IN;"><input name="answer_57" type="radio" value="2" /></span><span style="font-size: 12.0pt; mso-bidi-font-family: Calibri; mso-bidi-theme-font: minor-latin; mso-fareast-font-family: "Times New Roman"; mso-fareast-language: IN;"> Agree<br />
</span><span style="font-size: 12.0pt; mso-bidi-font-family: Calibri; mso-bidi-theme-font: minor-latin; mso-fareast-font-family: "Times New Roman"; mso-fareast-language: IN;"><input name="answer_57" type="radio" value="3" /></span><span style="font-size: 12.0pt; mso-bidi-font-family: Calibri; mso-bidi-theme-font: minor-latin; mso-fareast-font-family: "Times New Roman"; mso-fareast-language: IN;"> Strongly
Agree<o:p></o:p></span></div>
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<span style="font-size: 12pt;">A same sex couple in a stable, loving relationship,
should not be excluded from the possibility of child adoption.<o:p></o:p></span></div>
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<td style="padding: .75pt .75pt .75pt .75pt; width: 40.0%;" valign="top" width="40%">
<div class="MsoNormal" style="margin-bottom: 0.0001pt;">
<span style="font-size: 12.0pt; mso-bidi-font-family: Calibri; mso-bidi-theme-font: minor-latin; mso-fareast-font-family: "Times New Roman"; mso-fareast-language: IN;"><input name="answer_58" type="radio" value="0" /></span><span style="font-size: 12.0pt; mso-bidi-font-family: Calibri; mso-bidi-theme-font: minor-latin; mso-fareast-font-family: "Times New Roman"; mso-fareast-language: IN;"> Strongly
Disagree<br />
</span><span style="font-size: 12.0pt; mso-bidi-font-family: Calibri; mso-bidi-theme-font: minor-latin; mso-fareast-font-family: "Times New Roman"; mso-fareast-language: IN;"><input name="answer_58" type="radio" value="1" /></span><span style="font-size: 12.0pt; mso-bidi-font-family: Calibri; mso-bidi-theme-font: minor-latin; mso-fareast-font-family: "Times New Roman"; mso-fareast-language: IN;"> Disagree<br />
</span><span style="font-size: 12.0pt; mso-bidi-font-family: Calibri; mso-bidi-theme-font: minor-latin; mso-fareast-font-family: "Times New Roman"; mso-fareast-language: IN;"><input name="answer_58" type="radio" value="2" /></span><span style="font-size: 12.0pt; mso-bidi-font-family: Calibri; mso-bidi-theme-font: minor-latin; mso-fareast-font-family: "Times New Roman"; mso-fareast-language: IN;"> Agree<br />
</span><span style="font-size: 12.0pt; mso-bidi-font-family: Calibri; mso-bidi-theme-font: minor-latin; mso-fareast-font-family: "Times New Roman"; mso-fareast-language: IN;"><input name="answer_58" type="radio" value="3" /></span><span style="font-size: 12.0pt; mso-bidi-font-family: Calibri; mso-bidi-theme-font: minor-latin; mso-fareast-font-family: "Times New Roman"; mso-fareast-language: IN;"> Strongly
Agree<o:p></o:p></span></div>
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<span style="font-size: 12pt;">Pornography, depicting consenting adults, should be
legal for the adult population.<o:p></o:p></span></div>
</td>
<td style="padding: .75pt .75pt .75pt .75pt; width: 40.0%;" valign="top" width="40%">
<div class="MsoNormal" style="margin-bottom: 0.0001pt;">
<span style="font-size: 12.0pt; mso-bidi-font-family: Calibri; mso-bidi-theme-font: minor-latin; mso-fareast-font-family: "Times New Roman"; mso-fareast-language: IN;"><input name="answer_59" type="radio" value="0" /></span><span style="font-size: 12.0pt; mso-bidi-font-family: Calibri; mso-bidi-theme-font: minor-latin; mso-fareast-font-family: "Times New Roman"; mso-fareast-language: IN;"> Strongly
Disagree<br />
</span><span style="font-size: 12.0pt; mso-bidi-font-family: Calibri; mso-bidi-theme-font: minor-latin; mso-fareast-font-family: "Times New Roman"; mso-fareast-language: IN;"><input name="answer_59" type="radio" value="1" /></span><span style="font-size: 12.0pt; mso-bidi-font-family: Calibri; mso-bidi-theme-font: minor-latin; mso-fareast-font-family: "Times New Roman"; mso-fareast-language: IN;"> Disagree<br />
</span><span style="font-size: 12.0pt; mso-bidi-font-family: Calibri; mso-bidi-theme-font: minor-latin; mso-fareast-font-family: "Times New Roman"; mso-fareast-language: IN;"><input name="answer_59" type="radio" value="2" /></span><span style="font-size: 12.0pt; mso-bidi-font-family: Calibri; mso-bidi-theme-font: minor-latin; mso-fareast-font-family: "Times New Roman"; mso-fareast-language: IN;"> Agree<br />
</span><span style="font-size: 12.0pt; mso-bidi-font-family: Calibri; mso-bidi-theme-font: minor-latin; mso-fareast-font-family: "Times New Roman"; mso-fareast-language: IN;"><input name="answer_59" type="radio" value="3" /></span><span style="font-size: 12.0pt; mso-bidi-font-family: Calibri; mso-bidi-theme-font: minor-latin; mso-fareast-font-family: "Times New Roman"; mso-fareast-language: IN;"> Strongly
Agree<o:p></o:p></span></div>
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<div class="MsoNormal" style="margin-bottom: 0.0001pt;">
<span style="font-size: 12pt;">What goes on in a private bedroom between consenting
adults is no business of the state.<o:p></o:p></span></div>
</td>
<td style="padding: .75pt .75pt .75pt .75pt; width: 40.0%;" valign="top" width="40%">
<div class="MsoNormal" style="margin-bottom: 0.0001pt;">
<span style="font-size: 12.0pt; mso-bidi-font-family: Calibri; mso-bidi-theme-font: minor-latin; mso-fareast-font-family: "Times New Roman"; mso-fareast-language: IN;"><input name="answer_60" type="radio" value="0" /></span><span style="font-size: 12.0pt; mso-bidi-font-family: Calibri; mso-bidi-theme-font: minor-latin; mso-fareast-font-family: "Times New Roman"; mso-fareast-language: IN;"> Strongly
Disagree<br />
</span><span style="font-size: 12.0pt; mso-bidi-font-family: Calibri; mso-bidi-theme-font: minor-latin; mso-fareast-font-family: "Times New Roman"; mso-fareast-language: IN;"><input name="answer_60" type="radio" value="1" /></span><span style="font-size: 12.0pt; mso-bidi-font-family: Calibri; mso-bidi-theme-font: minor-latin; mso-fareast-font-family: "Times New Roman"; mso-fareast-language: IN;"> Disagree<br />
</span><span style="font-size: 12.0pt; mso-bidi-font-family: Calibri; mso-bidi-theme-font: minor-latin; mso-fareast-font-family: "Times New Roman"; mso-fareast-language: IN;"><input name="answer_60" type="radio" value="2" /></span><span style="font-size: 12.0pt; mso-bidi-font-family: Calibri; mso-bidi-theme-font: minor-latin; mso-fareast-font-family: "Times New Roman"; mso-fareast-language: IN;"> Agree<br />
</span><span style="font-size: 12.0pt; mso-bidi-font-family: Calibri; mso-bidi-theme-font: minor-latin; mso-fareast-font-family: "Times New Roman"; mso-fareast-language: IN;"><input name="answer_60" type="radio" value="3" /></span><span style="font-size: 12.0pt; mso-bidi-font-family: Calibri; mso-bidi-theme-font: minor-latin; mso-fareast-font-family: "Times New Roman"; mso-fareast-language: IN;"> Strongly
Agree<o:p></o:p></span></div>
</td>
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<div class="MsoNormal" style="margin-bottom: 0.0001pt;">
<span style="font-size: 12pt;">No one can feel naturally homosexual.<o:p></o:p></span></div>
</td>
<td style="padding: .75pt .75pt .75pt .75pt; width: 40.0%;" valign="top" width="40%">
<div class="MsoNormal" style="margin-bottom: 0.0001pt;">
<span style="font-size: 12.0pt; mso-bidi-font-family: Calibri; mso-bidi-theme-font: minor-latin; mso-fareast-font-family: "Times New Roman"; mso-fareast-language: IN;"><input name="answer_61" type="radio" value="0" /></span><span style="font-size: 12.0pt; mso-bidi-font-family: Calibri; mso-bidi-theme-font: minor-latin; mso-fareast-font-family: "Times New Roman"; mso-fareast-language: IN;"> Strongly
Disagree<br />
</span><span style="font-size: 12.0pt; mso-bidi-font-family: Calibri; mso-bidi-theme-font: minor-latin; mso-fareast-font-family: "Times New Roman"; mso-fareast-language: IN;"><input name="answer_61" type="radio" value="1" /></span><span style="font-size: 12.0pt; mso-bidi-font-family: Calibri; mso-bidi-theme-font: minor-latin; mso-fareast-font-family: "Times New Roman"; mso-fareast-language: IN;"> Disagree<br />
</span><span style="font-size: 12.0pt; mso-bidi-font-family: Calibri; mso-bidi-theme-font: minor-latin; mso-fareast-font-family: "Times New Roman"; mso-fareast-language: IN;"><input name="answer_61" type="radio" value="2" /></span><span style="font-size: 12.0pt; mso-bidi-font-family: Calibri; mso-bidi-theme-font: minor-latin; mso-fareast-font-family: "Times New Roman"; mso-fareast-language: IN;"> Agree<br />
</span><span style="font-size: 12.0pt; mso-bidi-font-family: Calibri; mso-bidi-theme-font: minor-latin; mso-fareast-font-family: "Times New Roman"; mso-fareast-language: IN;"><input name="answer_61" type="radio" value="3" /></span><span style="font-size: 12.0pt; mso-bidi-font-family: Calibri; mso-bidi-theme-font: minor-latin; mso-fareast-font-family: "Times New Roman"; mso-fareast-language: IN;"> Strongly
Agree<o:p></o:p></span></div>
</td>
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<div class="MsoNormal" style="margin-bottom: 0.0001pt;">
<span style="font-size: 12pt;">These days openness about sex has gone too far.<o:p></o:p></span></div>
</td>
<td style="padding: .75pt .75pt .75pt .75pt; width: 40.0%;" valign="top" width="40%">
<div class="MsoNormal" style="margin-bottom: 0.0001pt;">
<span style="font-size: 12.0pt; mso-bidi-font-family: Calibri; mso-bidi-theme-font: minor-latin; mso-fareast-font-family: "Times New Roman"; mso-fareast-language: IN;"><input name="answer_62" type="radio" value="0" /></span><span style="font-size: 12.0pt; mso-bidi-font-family: Calibri; mso-bidi-theme-font: minor-latin; mso-fareast-font-family: "Times New Roman"; mso-fareast-language: IN;"> Strongly
Disagree<br />
</span><span style="font-size: 12.0pt; mso-bidi-font-family: Calibri; mso-bidi-theme-font: minor-latin; mso-fareast-font-family: "Times New Roman"; mso-fareast-language: IN;"><input name="answer_62" type="radio" value="1" /></span><span style="font-size: 12.0pt; mso-bidi-font-family: Calibri; mso-bidi-theme-font: minor-latin; mso-fareast-font-family: "Times New Roman"; mso-fareast-language: IN;"> Disagree<br />
</span><span style="font-size: 12.0pt; mso-bidi-font-family: Calibri; mso-bidi-theme-font: minor-latin; mso-fareast-font-family: "Times New Roman"; mso-fareast-language: IN;"><input name="answer_62" type="radio" value="2" /></span><span style="font-size: 12.0pt; mso-bidi-font-family: Calibri; mso-bidi-theme-font: minor-latin; mso-fareast-font-family: "Times New Roman"; mso-fareast-language: IN;"> Agree<br />
</span><span style="font-size: 12.0pt; mso-bidi-font-family: Calibri; mso-bidi-theme-font: minor-latin; mso-fareast-font-family: "Times New Roman"; mso-fareast-language: IN;"><input name="answer_62" type="radio" value="3" /></span><span style="font-size: 12.0pt; mso-bidi-font-family: Calibri; mso-bidi-theme-font: minor-latin; mso-fareast-font-family: "Times New Roman"; mso-fareast-language: IN;"> Strongly
Agree<o:p></o:p></span></div>
</td>
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<div class="MsoNormal" style="background-color: white; background-position: initial initial; background-repeat: initial initial;">
<br /></div>
<div class="MsoNormal" style="background-color: white; background-position: initial initial; background-repeat: initial initial;">
<b><span lang="EN-US" style="font-size: 14pt;">Now let’s see where you stand
at </span></b><a href="http://www.politicalcompass.org/test"><b><span style="font-size: 14.0pt; mso-bidi-font-family: Calibri; mso-bidi-font-size: 11.0pt; mso-bidi-theme-font: minor-latin;">http://www.politicalcompass.org/test</span></b></a><span lang="EN-US"><o:p></o:p></span></div>
<div class="MsoNormal" style="background-color: white; background-position: initial initial; background-repeat: initial initial;">
<span lang="EN-US"> </span></div>
<div class="MsoNormal" style="background-color: white; background-position: initial initial; background-repeat: initial initial;">
<br /></div>
<div class="MsoNormal" style="background-color: white; background-position: initial initial; background-repeat: initial initial;">
<i><span lang="EN-US" style="font-size: 12.0pt; mso-ansi-language: EN-US; mso-bidi-font-size: 11.0pt;">*maaf ya, proses translate-nya belum saya rampungkan</span></i><b><i><span lang="EN-US" style="font-size: 16pt;"><o:p></o:p></span></i></b></div>
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<br />Teuku Bahran Basyiranhttp://www.blogger.com/profile/10525417589204464156noreply@blogger.com0tag:blogger.com,1999:blog-3600626824018511994.post-14856213474205385182012-07-26T23:23:00.000+02:002012-07-30T00:15:32.933+02:00Ten Key Principles in Economics by Professor Gregory Mankiw<h3>
<b><span style="font-family: Times, 'Times New Roman', serif;">(Re-blogged from Prof Gregory Mankiw's Blog)</span></b></h3>
<br />
<span style="color: #333333; font-family: Georgia, serif; font-size: medium; line-height: 20px; text-align: left;"><strong><span style="color: red;">E</span></strong>verything has a cost. There is no free lunch. There is always a trade-off.</span><br />
<br />
<span style="color: #333333; font-family: Georgia, serif; font-size: medium; line-height: 20px; text-align: left;"><strong><span style="color: red;">C</span></strong>ost is what you give up to get something. In particular, opportunity cost is cost of the tradeoff.<br /><br /><strong><span style="color: red;">O</span></strong>ne More. Rational people make decisions on the basis of the cost of one more unit (of consumption, of investment, of labor hour, etc.).<br /><br />i<strong><span style="color: red;">N</span></strong>centives work. People respond to incentives.<br /><br /><strong><span style="color: red;">O</span></strong>pen for trade. Trade can make all parties better off.<br /><br /><strong><span style="color: red;">M</span></strong>arkets Rock! Usually, markets are the best way to allocate scarce resources between producers and consumers.<br /><br /><strong><span style="color: red;">I</span></strong>ntervention in free markets is sometimes needed. (But watch out for the law of unintended effects!)<br /><br /><strong><span style="color: red;">C</span></strong>oncentrate on productivity. A country’s standard of living depends on how productive its economy is.<br /><br /><strong><span style="color: red;">S</span></strong>loshing in money leads to higher prices. Inflation is caused by excessive money supply.<br /><br /><strong><span style="color: red;">!!!</span></strong> Caution: In the short run, falling prices may lead to unemployment, and rising employment may lead to inflation.</span>Teuku Bahran Basyiranhttp://www.blogger.com/profile/10525417589204464156noreply@blogger.com0tag:blogger.com,1999:blog-3600626824018511994.post-31909707924379432102012-07-26T23:13:00.001+02:002012-07-26T23:13:39.152+02:00What I've been watching<br />
<h3 class="post-title" style="color: #990033; font-family: Georgia, serif; font-size: 21px; font-weight: normal; line-height: 1.4em; margin: 0.25em 0px 0px; padding: 0px 0px 4px; text-align: left;">
(Re-blogged from Prof Greg Mankiw's Blog)</h3>
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<a href="http://4.bp.blogspot.com/-MmV06jDGxHc/UAbNT-am5gI/AAAAAAAABVE/YP2bJtin10o/s1600/BREAKING-BAD.jpg" imageanchor="1" style="clear: right; color: midnightblue; float: right; margin-bottom: 1em; margin-left: 1em;"><img border="0" height="106" src="http://4.bp.blogspot.com/-MmV06jDGxHc/UAbNT-am5gI/AAAAAAAABVE/YP2bJtin10o/s200/BREAKING-BAD.jpg" style="border: 1px solid rgb(221, 221, 221); padding: 4px;" width="200" /></a>I am a latecomer to this, but a friend suggested to me that I would enjoy the TV show <em>Breaking Bad</em>, and boy was he right. It has occupied me almost every evening for the past month, as I have caught up to the current season five.<br /><br />The show tells the story of a particularly destructive mid-life crisis, as a mild-mannered high school teacher slowly descends into the underworld of drug manufacturing. It is not the best TV drama of all time (I would probably vote for <em>The Wire</em>), but it is close. It is important to watch in sequence, so be sure to start with season one.</div>
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<i>Re-blogged this because I have watched this movies too. And I agree with all his words on posted.</i></div>
</div>Teuku Bahran Basyiranhttp://www.blogger.com/profile/10525417589204464156noreply@blogger.com0tag:blogger.com,1999:blog-3600626824018511994.post-48080769717359008132012-07-26T22:57:00.000+02:002018-07-10T16:25:57.146+02:00Introduction to Algebra: Math Help Summary<br />
<h3>
<ol>
<li><span style="background-color: white;">Variables</span><span style="background-color: white; font-size: small; font-weight: normal;"> </span></li>
<li><span style="background-color: white;">Expressions</span><span style="background-color: white; font-size: small; font-weight: normal;"> </span></li>
<li><span style="background-color: white;">Equations</span><span style="background-color: white; font-size: small; font-weight: normal;"> </span></li>
<li><span style="background-color: white;">Solution of an equation</span><span style="background-color: white; font-size: small; font-weight: normal;"> </span></li>
<li><span style="background-color: white;">Simplifying equations</span><span style="background-color: white; font-size: small; font-weight: normal;"> </span></li>
<li><span style="background-color: white;">Combining like terms</span><span style="background-color: white; font-size: small; font-weight: normal;"> </span></li>
<li><span style="background-color: white;">Simplifying with addition and subtraction</span><span style="background-color: white; font-size: small; font-weight: normal;"> </span></li>
<li><span style="background-color: white;">Simplifying by multiplication</span><span style="background-color: white; font-size: small; font-weight: normal;"> </span></li>
<li><span style="background-color: white;">Simplifying by division</span><span style="background-color: white; font-size: small; font-weight: normal;"> </span></li>
<li><span style="background-color: white;">Word problems as equations</span><span style="background-color: white; font-size: small; font-weight: normal;"> </span></li>
<li><span style="background-color: white;">Sequences</span><span style="background-color: white; font-size: small; font-weight: normal;"> </span></li>
</ol>
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<span style="font-size: small; font-weight: normal;"> <a name='more'></a></span>
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<h3>
Variables</h3>
A variable is a symbol that represents a number. Usually we use letters such as <i>n</i>, <i>t</i>, or <i>x</i> for variables. For example, we might say that <i>s</i> stands for the side-length of a square. We now treat <i>s</i> as if it were a number we could use. The perimeter of the square is given by 4 × <i>s</i>. The area of the square is given by <i>s </i>× <i>s</i>. When working with variables, it can be helpful to use a letter that will remind you of what the variable stands for: let <i>n</i> be the<u>n</u>umber of people in a movie theater; let <i>t</i> be the <u>t</u>ime it takes to travel somewhere; let <i>d</i> be the <u>d</u>istance from my house to the park.<br />
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<h3>
<a href="http://www.blogger.com/blogger.g?blogID=3600626824018511994" name="expressions"></a>Expressions</h3>
An expression is a mathematical term or a sum or difference of mathematical terms that may use numbers, variables, or both.<span style="color: blue;">Example:</span><br />
The following are examples of expressions:<br />
2<br />
<i>x</i><br />
3 + 7<br />
2 × <i>y</i> + 5<br />
2 + 6 × (4 - 2)<br />
<i>z</i> + 3 × (8 - <i>z</i>)<br />
<span style="color: blue;">Example:</span><br />
Roland weighs 70 kilograms, and Mark weighs <i>k</i> kilograms. Write an expression for their combined weight. The combined weight in kilograms of these two people is the sum of their weights, which is 70 + <i>k</i>.<br />
<span style="color: blue;">Example:</span><br />
A car travels down the freeway at 55 kilometers per hour. Write an expression for the distance the car will have traveled after <i>h</i> hours. Distance equals rate times time, so the distance traveled is equal to 55 × <i>h</i>..<br />
<span style="color: blue;">Example:</span><br />
There are 2000 liters of water in a swimming pool. Water is filling the pool at the rate of 100 liters per minute. Write an expression for the amount of water, in liters, in the swimming pool after <i>m</i> minutes. The amount of water added to the pool after <i>m</i> minutes will be 100 liters per minute times <i>m</i>, or 100 × <i>m</i>. Since we started with 2000 liters of water in the pool, we add this to the amount of water added to the pool to get the expression 100 × <i>m </i>+ 2000.<br />
To evaluate an expression at some number means we replace a variable in an expression with the number, and simplify the expression.<br />
<span style="color: blue;">Example:</span><br />
Evaluate the expression 4 × <i>z</i> + 12 when <i>z</i> = 15.<br />
We replace each occurrence of <i>z</i> with the number 15, and simplify using the usual rules: parentheses first, then exponents, multiplication and division, then addition and subtraction.<br />
4 × <i>z</i> + 12 becomes<br />
4 × 15 + 12 =<br />
60 + 12 =<br />
72<br />
<span style="color: blue;">Example:</span><br />
Evaluate the expression (1 + <i>z</i>) × 2 + 12 ÷ 3 - <i>z</i> when <i>z</i> = 4.<br />
We replace each occurrence of z with the number 4, and simplify using the usual rules: parentheses first, then exponents, multiplication and division, then addition and subtraction.<br />
(1 + <i>z</i>) × 2 + 12 ÷ 3 - <i>z</i> becomes<br />
(1 + 4) × 2 + 12 ÷ 3 - 4 =<br />
5 × 2 + 12 ÷ 3 - 4 =<br />
10 + 4 - 4 =<br />
10.<br />
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<h3>
<a href="http://www.blogger.com/blogger.g?blogID=3600626824018511994" name="equations"></a>Equations</h3>
An equation is a statement that two numbers or expressions are equal. Equations are useful for relating variables and numbers. Many word problems can easily be written down as equations with a little practice. Many simple rules exist for simplifying equations.<span style="color: blue;">Example:</span><br />
The following are examples of equations:<br />
2 = 2<br />
17 = 2 + 15<br />
<i>x</i> = 7<br />
7 = <i>x</i><br />
<i>t</i> + 3 = 8<br />
3 × <i>n</i> +12 = 100<br />
<i>w</i> + 4 = 12 - <i>w</i><br />
<i>y</i> - 1 - 2 - 9.3 = 34<br />
3 × (<i>d</i> + 4) - 11 = 321 - 2<sup>3</sup><br />
<span style="color: blue;">Example:</span><br />
Translate the following word problem into an equation:<br />
My age in years <i>y</i> plus 20 is equal to four times my age, minus 10.<br />
The first expression stands for "my age in years plus 20", which is <i>y</i> + 20.<br />
This is equal to the second expression for "four times my age, minus 10", which is 4 × <i>y</i> - 10.<br />
Setting these two expressions equal to one another gives us the equation:<br />
<i>y</i> + 20 = 4 × <i>y</i> - 10<br />
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<h3>
<a href="http://www.blogger.com/blogger.g?blogID=3600626824018511994" name="solutionofanequation"></a>Solution of an Equation</h3>
When an equation has a variable, the solution to the equation is the number that makes the equation true when we replace the variable with its value.<span style="color: blue;">Example:</span><br />
We say <i>y</i> = 3 is a solution to the equation 4 × <i>y</i> + 7 = 19, for replacing each occurrence of <i>y</i> with 3 gives us<br />
4 × 3 + 7 = 19 ==><br />
12 + 7 = 19 ==><br />
19 = 19 which is true.<br />
<span style="color: blue;">Examples:</span><br />
<i>x</i> = 100 is a solution to the equation <i>x</i> ÷ 2 - 40 = 10<br />
<i>z </i>= 12 is a solution to the equation 5 × (<i>z</i> - 6) = 30<br />
<span style="color: blue;">Counterexample:</span><br />
<i>y</i> = 10 is NOT a solution to the equation 4 × <i>y</i> + 7 = 19. When we replace each <i>y</i> with 10, we get<br />
4 × 10 + 7 = 19 ==><br />
40 + 7 = 19 ==><br />
47 = 19 not true!<br />
<span style="color: blue;">Counterexamples:</span><br />
<i>x</i> = 200 is NOT a solution to the equation <i>x</i> ÷ 2 - 40 = 10<br />
<i>z</i> = 20 is NOT a solution to the equation 5 × (<i>z</i> - 6) = 30<br />
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<h3>
<a href="http://www.blogger.com/blogger.g?blogID=3600626824018511994" name="simplifyingequations"></a>Simplifying Equations</h3>
To find a solution for an equation, we can use the basic rules of simplifying equations. These are as follows:1) You may evaluate any parentheses, exponents, multiplications, divisions, additions, and subtractions in the usual order of operations. When evaluating expressions, be careful to use the associative and distributive properties properly.<br />
2) You may combine like terms. This means adding or subtracting variables of the same kind. The expression 2<i>x</i> + 4<i>x</i> simplifies to 6<i>x</i>. The expression 13 - 7 + 3 simplifies to 9.<br />
3) You may add any value to both sides of the equation.<br />
4) You may subtract any value from both sides of the equation. This is best done by adding a negative value to each side of the equation.<br />
5) You may multiply both sides of the equation by any number except 0.<br />
6) You may divide both sides of the equation by any number except 0.<br />
Hint: Since subtracting any number is the same as adding its negative, it can be helpful to replace subtractions with additions of a negative number.<br />
<span style="color: blue;">Example:</span><br />
This problem illustrates grouping like terms and dealing with subtraction in an equation.<br />
Solve <i>x</i> - 12 + 20 = 37.<br />
Replacing the -12 with a +(-12), we get<br />
<i>x</i> + (-12) + 20 = 37.<br />
Since addition is associative, the two like terms (the integers) may be combined.<br />
(12) + 20 = 8<br />
The left side of the equation becomes<br />
x<i> </i>+ 8 = 37.<br />
Now we may subtract 8 from each side of the equation, (we will actually add a -8 to each side).<br />
<i>x</i> + 8 + (-8) = 37 + (-8)<br />
<i>x</i> + 0 = 29<br />
<i>x</i> = 29<br />
We can check this solution in the original equation:<br />
<i>29</i> - 12 + 20 = 37<i>x</i> + 0 = 29<br />
17 + 20 = 37<br />
37 = 37 so our solution is correct.<br />
<span style="color: blue;">Example:</span><br />
This problem illustrates the proper use of the distributive property.<br />
Solve 2 × (<i>x</i> + 1 + 4) = 20.<br />
Grouping like terms in the parentheses, the left side of the equation becomes<br />
2 × (<i>x</i> + 1 + 4) ==> 2 × (<i>x</i> + 5).<br />
Using the distributive property,<br />
2 × (<i>x</i> + 5) ==> 2 × <i>x</i> + 2 × 5.<br />
Carrying out multiplications,<br />
2 × <i>x</i> + 2 × 5 ==> to 2<i>x</i> + 10.<br />
The equation now becomes<br />
2<i>x</i> + 10 = 20.<br />
Subtracting a 10 (adding a -10) to each side gives us<br />
2<i>x</i> + 10 + (-10) = 20 + (-10) ==><br />
2<i>x</i> + (10 + (-10)) = 20 - 10 ==><br />
2<i>x</i> + 0 = 10 ==><br />
2<i>x</i> = 10.<br />
Since the <i>x</i> is multiplied by 2, we divide both sides by 2 to solve for <i>x</i>:<br />
2<i>x</i> = 10 ==><br />
2<i>x</i> ÷ 2 = 10 ÷ 2 ==><br />
(2<i>x</i>)/2 = 5 ==><br />
<i>x</i> = 5.<br />
We can check this solution in the original equation:<br />
2 × (5 + 1 + 4) = 20 ==><br />
2 × 10 = 20 ==><br />
20 = 20 so our solution is correct.<br />
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<h3>
<a href="http://www.blogger.com/blogger.g?blogID=3600626824018511994" name="combiningliketerms"></a>Combining like terms</h3>
One of the most common ways to simplify an expression is to combine like terms. Numeric terms may be combined, and any terms with the same variable part may be combined.<span style="color: blue;">Example:</span><br />
Consider the expression 2 + 7<i>x</i> + 12 - 3<i>x</i> - 5. The numeric like terms are the numbers 2, 12, and 5. The variable like terms are 7<i>x</i> and 3<i>x</i>. Combining the numeric like terms, we have 2 + 12 - 5 = 14 - 5 = 9. Combining the variable like terms, we have 7<i>x</i> - 3<i>x</i> = 4<i>x</i>, so the expression 2 + 7<i>x</i> + 12 - 3<i>x</i> - 5 simplifies to 9 + 4<i>x</i>.<br />
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<h3>
<a href="http://www.blogger.com/blogger.g?blogID=3600626824018511994" name="simplifyingwithadditionandsubtraction"></a>Simplifying with addition and subtraction</h3>
We can use addition and subtraction to get all the terms with variables on one side of an equation, and all the numeric terms on the other.The equations 3<i>x</i> = 17, 21 = <i>y</i>, and <i>z/12 = 24</i> each have a variable term on one side of the = sign, and a number on the other.<br />
The equations <i>x</i> + 3 = 12, 21 = 30 - <i>y</i>, and (<i>z</i> + 2) × 4 = 10 do not.<br />
We usually do this after simplifying each side using the distributive rules, eliminating parentheses, and combining like terms. Since addition is associative, it can be helpful to add a negative number to each side instead of subtracting to avoid mistakes.<br />
<span style="color: blue;">Examples:</span><br />
For the equation 3<i>x</i> + 4 = 12, we can isolate the variable term on the left by subtracting a 4 from both sides:<br />
3<i>x</i> + 4 - 4 = 12 - 4 ==><br />
3<i>x</i> = 8.<br />
For the equation 7<i>y</i> - 200 = 10, subtracting the 200 on the left side is the same as adding a -200:<br />
7<i>y</i> + (-200) = 10.<br />
If we add 200 to both sides of the equation, the 200 and -200 will cancel each other:<br />
7<i>y</i> + (-200) + 200 = 10 + 200 ==><br />
7<i>y</i> = 210.<br />
For the equation 8 = 20 - <i>z</i>, we can add <i>z</i> to both sides to get 8 + <i>z</i> = 20 - <i>z</i> + z ==> 8 + <i>z</i> = 20. Now subtracting 8 from both sides,<br />
8 + <i>z</i> - 8 = 20 - 8 ==><br />
<i>z</i> = 12, so we get a solution for <i>z</i>.<br />
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<h3>
<a href="http://www.blogger.com/blogger.g?blogID=3600626824018511994" name="simplifyingbymultiplication"></a>Simplfying by multiplication</h3>
When solving for a variable, we want to get a solution like <i>x</i> = 3 or <i>z</i> = 2001. When a variable is divided by some number, we can use multiplication on both sides to solve for the variable.<span style="color: blue;">Example:</span><br />
Solve for <i>x</i> in the equation <i>x</i> ÷ 12 = 5.<br />
Since the <i>x</i> on the left side is being divided by 12, the equation is the same as <i>x</i> × 1/12 = 5. Multiplying both sides by 12 will cancel the 1/12 on the left side:<br />
<i>x</i> × 1/12 × 12 = 5 × 12 ==><br />
<i>x</i> × 1 = 60 ==><br />
<i>x</i> = 60.<br />
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<h3>
<a href="http://www.blogger.com/blogger.g?blogID=3600626824018511994" name="simplifyingbydivision"></a>Simplifying by division</h3>
When solving for a variable, we want to get a solution like <i>x</i> = 3 or <i>z</i> = 2001. When a variable is multiplied by some number, we can use division on both sides to solve for the variable.<span style="color: blue;">Example:</span><br />
Solve for <i>x</i> in the equation 7<i>x</i> = 133. Since the <i>x</i> on the left side is being multiplied by 7, we can divide both sides by 7 to solve for <i>x</i>:<br />
7<i>x</i> ÷ 7 = 133 ÷ 7 ==><br />
(7<i>x</i>)/7 = 133 ÷ 7 ==><br />
<i>x</i>/1 = 19 ==><br />
<i>x</i> = 19.<br />
Note that dividing by 7 is the same as multiplying both sides by 1/7.<br />
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<h3>
<a href="http://www.blogger.com/blogger.g?blogID=3600626824018511994" name="wordproblemsasequations"></a>Word problems as equations</h3>
When converting word problems to equations, certain "key" words tell you what kind of operations to use: addition, multiplication, subtraction, and division. The table below shows some common phrases and the operation to use.<br />
<table><tbody>
<tr><td width="80"><b>Word</b></td><td width="104"><b>Operation</b> </td><td width="295"><b>Example</b></td><td width="127"><b>As an equation</b> </td></tr>
<tr><td width="80">sum</td><td width="104">addition</td><td width="295">The sum of my age and 10 equals 27. </td><td width="127"><i>y</i> + 10 = 27</td></tr>
<tr><td width="80">difference</td><td width="104">subtraction</td><td width="295">The difference between my age and my younger sister's age, who is 11 years old, is 5 years. </td><td width="127"><i>y</i> - 11 = 5</td></tr>
<tr><td width="80">product</td><td width="104">multiplication</td><td width="295">The product of my age and 14 is 168.</td><td width="127"><i>y</i> × 14 = 168 </td></tr>
<tr><td width="80">times</td><td width="104">multiplication</td><td width="295">Three times my age is 60. </td><td width="127">3 × <i>y</i> = 60 </td></tr>
<tr><td width="80">less than</td><td width="104">subtraction</td><td width="295">Seven less than my age equals 32.</td><td width="127"><i>y</i> - 7 = 32 </td></tr>
<tr><td width="80">total</td><td width="104">addition</td><td width="295">The total of my pocket change and 20 dollars is $22.43. </td><td width="127"><i>y</i> + 20 = 22.43</td></tr>
<tr><td width="80">more than</td><td width="104">addition</td><td width="295">Eleven more than my age equals 43. </td><td width="127">11 + <i>y</i> = 43</td></tr>
</tbody></table>
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<h3>
<a href="http://www.blogger.com/blogger.g?blogID=3600626824018511994" name="sequences"></a>Sequences</h3>
A sequence is a list of items. We can specify any item in the list by its place in the list: first, second, third, fourth, and so on. Many useful lists have patterns so we know what items occur in each place in the list. There are 2 kinds of sequences. A finite sequence is a list made up of a finite number of items. An infinite sequence is a list that continues without end.<span style="color: blue;">Examples:</span><br />
The following are examples of finite sequences.<br />
The sequence 1, 3, 5, 7, 9, 11, 13, 15, 17, 19 is the sequence of the first 10 odd numbers.<br />
The sequence <i>a, e, i, o, u,</i> is the sequence of vowels in the alphabet.<br />
The sequence <i>m, m, m, m, m, m</i> is the sequence of 6 <i>m's.</i><br />
The sequence 1, 0, 1, 0, 1, 0, 1, 0, 1, 0, 1, 0 is the sequence of 12 alternating 1's and 0's.<br />
The sequence 1, 2, 3, 4, ..., 9998, 9999, 10000 is the sequence of the first ten thousand integers.<br />
The sequence 0, 1, 4, 9, 16, 25, 36, 49 is the sequence of the squares of the first 8 whole numbers.<br />
<span style="color: blue;">Examples:</span><br />
The following are examples of infinite sequences.<br />
The sequence 2, 4, 6, 8, 10, 12, 14, 16, ... is the sequence of even whole numbers. The 100th place in this sequence is the number 200.<br />
The sequence <i>a, b, c, a, b, c, a, b, c, a, b, ...</i> is the sequence of the letters a, b, c, repeating in this pattern forever.<br />
The 100th place in this sequence is the letter <i>a.</i> The 300th place in this sequence is the letter <i>c.</i><br />
The sequence -1, 2, -3, 4, -5, 6, -7, 8, -9, ... is the sequence of integers with alternating signs. The 10th place in this sequence is 10. The 100th place in this sequence is 100. The 101st place in this sequence is -101.<br />
The sequence 1, 0, 1, 0, 0, 1, 0, 0, 0, 1, 0, 0, 0, 0, 1, ... is a sequence of 1's separated by 1 zero, then 2 zeros, then 3 zeros, and so on. The 100th place in this sequence is a 0. The 105th place in this sequence is a 1.<br />
The sequence 1, 3, 6, 10, 15, 21, 28, 36, 45, ... is the sequence of places the 1 occurs in the sequence of 1's and 0's above! If this sequence seems strange, note the difference between pairs of numbers next to one another:<br />
3 - 1 = 2<br />
6 - 3 = 3<br />
10 - 6 = 4<br />
15 - 10 = 5<br />
21 - 15 = 6<br />
28 - 21 = 7<br />
Checking these differences makes the pattern clearer.<br />
1, 1, 1, 1, 1, 1, ... is the sequence where every item in the list is the number 1.<br />
1, 2, 3, 4, 5, 6, 7, ... is the sequence of counting numbers. Each item in the list is its place number in the list.<br />
a, b, a, b, a, b, a, b, ... is the sequence of alternating letters a and b. The a's occur in odd-numbered places, and the b's occur in the even-numbered places.<br />
1/1, 1/2, 1/3, 1/4, 1/5, 1/6, 1/7, ... is the sequence of reciprocals of the whole numbers.<br />
1, 4, 9, 16, 25, 36, 49, 64, 81, ... is the sequence of squares of the whole numbers.<br />
a, e, i, o, u, a, e, i, o, u, a, e, ... is the repeating sequence of vowels in the alphabet.<br />
4, 7, 10, 13, 16, 19, 22, 25, ... is the sequence of numbers beginning with the number 4, and each number in the list is 3 more than the number before it.<br />
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<b><u>Source:</u></b><br />
<b>Math League -</b> <a href="http://www.mathleague.com/">http://www.mathleague.com/</a>Teuku Bahran Basyiranhttp://www.blogger.com/profile/10525417589204464156noreply@blogger.com0tag:blogger.com,1999:blog-3600626824018511994.post-69375534777314120112012-07-15T17:37:00.000+02:002012-07-15T17:45:16.515+02:00Pertumbuhan Ekonomi<b><i style="background-color: white; font-size: 12pt; text-indent: 36pt;"><span style="font-size: 11.5pt;">Oleh</span></i><i style="background-color: white; font-size: 12pt; text-indent: 36pt;"><span lang="EN-US" style="font-size: 11.5pt;">:</span></i><i style="background-color: white; font-size: 12pt; text-indent: 36pt;"><span style="font-size: 11.5pt;"> Dr Bambang Heru Direktur Statistik Peternakan, Perikanan, dan Kehutanan BPS dan Sekretaris Ikatan Perstatistikan Indonesia (ISI), atau Statistika Indonesia.</span></i><span style="background-color: white; font-size: 12pt; text-indent: 36pt;"> </span></b><br />
<div class="MsoNormal" style="margin-bottom: 0.0001pt; text-align: justify; text-indent: 36pt;">
<span lang="EN-US" style="font-size: 12pt;"><br /></span></div>
<div class="MsoNormal" style="margin-bottom: 0.0001pt; text-align: justify; text-indent: 36pt;">
<span style="font-size: 11.5pt;">Tingkat pertumbuhan
ekonomi merupakan indikator kinerja makro yang sangat populer, dan dalam
hitungannya merupakan derivasi dari PDB (produk domestik bruto) atau GDP (<i>gross
domestic product</i>). Popularitasnya disebabkan banyaknya kaitan penggunaan
indikator tersebut dengan kegunaan praktis dalam perencanaan dan evaluasi
pembangunan. Sering kita baca/dengar berita dari media tentang tingkat defisit
anggaran, pendapatan per kapita, investasi, maupun kontribusi ekonomi sektoral,
yang semuanya dikaitkan dengan besaran PDB. </span><span lang="EN-US" style="font-size: 11.5pt;"><o:p></o:p></span></div>
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<br /></div>
<div class="MsoNormal" style="margin-bottom: 0.0001pt; text-align: justify; text-indent: 36pt;">
<span style="font-size: 11.5pt;">Di tengah meluasnya
penggunaan indikator tersebut, masih sering terjadi salah tafsir sehingga
masyarakat seolah dihadapkan kepada anomali, dan secara ekonomi merugikan. Ada
pendapat, apabila pertumbuhan ekonomi tinggi, secara otomatis seluruh
masyarakat akan tambah sejahtera serta kemiskinan dan pengangguran berkurang.
Benarkah analisis tersebut? Mungkin benar, tetapi tidak sepenuhnya, atau bahkan
mungkin sebaliknya. </span><a href="http://www.blogger.com/blogger.g?blogID=3600626824018511994" name="more"></a><span lang="EN-US" style="font-size: 11.5pt;"><o:p></o:p></span></div>
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<span style="font-size: 11.5pt;">Sesuatu yang sering
dibanggakan banyak pihak adalah bahwa di tengah krisis ekonomi dunia, ekonomi
Indonesia masih tumbuh 4,5% (2008 sebesar 6%). Dengan tingkat pertumbuhan
penduduk sebesar 1,34%, jelas ekonomi per kapita rata-rata masih tumbuh di atas
3%. Namun, kesimpulan akan lain apabila dimasukkan variabel pemerataan, dan di
sinilah masalah muncul sehingga analisis yang berbasis pertumbuhan tanpa
mengacu kepada pengertian konsep dan definisi serta tata cara penghitungannya
sering membuat kesimpulan menjadi bias. Kalau hanya sebagai kajian akademis masih
'baik-baik saja'. Celakanya apabila digunakan untuk kebijakan ekonomi, bisa
menjerumuskan dan merugikan. </span><span lang="EN-US" style="font-size: 11.5pt;"><o:p></o:p></span></div>
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<br /></div>
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<span style="font-size: 11.5pt;">Secara konseptual,
setiap aktivitas ekonomi akan menghasilkan nilai tambah (<i>value added</i>)-–nilai
yang ditambahkan atas nilai bahan baku/input antara--yang merupakan balas jasa
faktor produksi--tenaga kerja, tanah, modal, dan kewiraswastaan.
Penjumlahan <i>value added</i> di suatu wilayah teritorial
(Indonesia) dan dalam selang waktu tertentu (triwulan, setahun) menghasilkan
PDB wilayah tersebut. </span><span lang="EN-US" style="font-size: 11.5pt;"><o:p></o:p></span></div>
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<span style="font-size: 11.5pt;"><br />
Dengan demikian, penguasaan faktor produksi menentukan kepemilikan nilai
tambah. Selanjutnya, pertambahan riil PDB dalam triwulan/setahun dinamakan
pertumbuhan ekonomi triwulan/tahun bersangkutan. Kata riil mengacu kepada PDB
yang telah 'dihilangkan' inflasinya sehingga pertumbuhan ekonomi sudah 'bersih'
dari pengaruh perubahan harga dan merupakan pertumbuhan jumlah 'kuantitas'
produk. </span><span lang="EN-US" style="font-size: 11.5pt;"><o:p></o:p></span></div>
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<b><span style="font-size: 11.5pt;">Benarka</span></b><b><span lang="EN-US" style="font-size: 11.5pt;">h</span></b><b><span style="font-size: 11.5pt;"> pertumbuhan yang
terjadi telah menyejahterakan masyarakat? </span></b><b><span lang="EN-US" style="font-size: 11.5pt;"><o:p></o:p></span></b></div>
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<br /></div>
<div class="MsoNormal" style="margin-bottom: 0.0001pt; text-align: justify; text-indent: 36pt;">
<span style="font-size: 11.5pt;">Masalah penguasaan
faktor produksi dan besaran kontribusi sektoral menjadi faktor nyata
'melesetnya' interpretasi yang merugikan masyarakat, dan berikut ini diberikan
uraian anomali akibat salah interpretasi. </span><br />
<a name='more'></a><span lang="EN-US" style="font-size: 11.5pt;"><o:p></o:p></span></div>
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<span style="font-size: 11.5pt;">Pertama, produksi
pertambangan di Indonesia dengan kondisi faktor produksi tenaga kerja
berpendapatan rendah, umumnya pelakunya adalah masyarakat Indonesia. Tenaga
ahli, yang umumnya pendapatannya jauh lebih tinggi, adalah ekspatriat. Data
sebuah perusahaan tambang menunjukkan bahwa jumlah uang untuk membayar tenaga
ekspatriat berbanding terbalik dengan jumlah tenaga kerjanya. Jumlah ekspatriat
sedikit total nilai gaji dan tunjangannya besar. </span><span lang="EN-US" style="font-size: 11.5pt;"><o:p></o:p></span></div>
<div class="MsoNormal" style="margin-bottom: 0.0001pt; text-align: justify; text-indent: 36pt;">
<span style="font-size: 11.5pt;">Walaupun tanahnya
milik Indonesia, dalam penggunaannya dikuasai asing. Demikian juga modalnya
dari mereka sehingga walaupun dicatat di Indonesia, PDB-nya lebih dinikmati
mereka. Nilai tambah yang tercipta dan merupakan hak pekerja hanya bagian
kecil, sebaliknya sebagian (besar) lainnya adalah milik penguasa faktor
produksi. Pemerintah mendapat pajak dari aktivitas ekonomi ini, yang jumlahnya
lebih kecil jika dibandingkan dengan milik asing. Dengan analogi itu, apabila
pertumbuhan ekonomi terjadi karenanya, yang 'lebih tumbuh' adalah mereka.
Bagaimana kalau banyak bisnis pertambangan semacam itu? Mungkin nantinya sumber
daya habis, ternyata yang lebih menikmati adalah asing. </span><span lang="EN-US" style="font-size: 11.5pt;"><o:p></o:p></span></div>
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<span style="font-size: 11.5pt;">Kedua, untuk
perusahaan jasa, misalkan perbankan, mungkin lebih parah. Mereka melayani
aktivitas ekonomi Indonesia, dan semua transaksi keuangan dalam perekonomian
hampir pasti akan dikelola sektor tersebut. Kendatipun lokasi bisnis di
Indonesia, dan kinerjanya dicatat dalam PDB negeri ini, karena sebagian besar
faktor produksinya dimiliki dan dikuasai asing, nilai tambahnya sebagian besar
juga milik asing. Karena usaha jasa saat ini sarat dengan ICT (<i>information-communication
technology</i>), hanya sedikit tenaga kerja yang diserap. Bisnis jasa bukan
hanya perbankan. Peran asing sudah mendominasi. </span><span lang="EN-US" style="font-size: 11.5pt;"><o:p></o:p></span></div>
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<br /></div>
<div class="MsoNormal" style="margin-bottom: 0.0001pt; text-align: justify; text-indent: 36pt;">
<span style="font-size: 11.5pt;">Ketiga, usaha besar
jumlahnya sedikit, sebaliknya usaha kecil jumlahnya banyak. Usaha besar sering
merupakan afiliasi asing yang operasionalisasinya sangat efisien, sedangkan
usaha kecil masih menjadi perbincangan untuk didorong maju. Ritel modern yang
berjaringan luas, efisien, dan diizinkan masuk ke daerah kecil didampingkan
dengan ritel tradisional yang sering berpenampilan kumuh dan kurang menarik
pengunjung. Karuan saja, yang besar tumbuh besar dan yang kecil semakin kecil
dan mungkin mati. Ritel besar berkontribusi besar ke PDB, sedangkan ritel
kecil, kendatipun jumlahnya 'sangat banyak' kontribusinya kecil. Dengan
demikian, apabila sektor perdagangan tumbuh, secara matematis lebih
menggambarkan pertumbuhan yang besar. Ada media menggambarkan keterjepitan
pasar tradisional. </span><span lang="EN-US" style="font-size: 11.5pt;"><o:p></o:p></span></div>
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<br /></div>
<div class="MsoNormal" style="margin-bottom: 0.0001pt; text-align: justify; text-indent: 36pt;">
<span style="font-size: 11.5pt;">Keempat, produk air
kemasan merek terkenal sudah menjadi milik perusahaan multinasional, yang tentu
saja ada bagian (besar) faktor produksi yang dikuasai mereka. Padahal,
teknologinya sudah tidak asing bagi masyarakat dalam negeri. </span><span lang="EN-US" style="font-size: 11.5pt;"><o:p></o:p></span></div>
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<br /></div>
<div class="MsoNormal" style="margin-bottom: 0.0001pt; text-align: justify; text-indent: 36pt;">
<span style="font-size: 11.5pt;">Kelima, bisnis kuliner
yang berbentuk waralaba memang sebagian besar faktor produksinya dimiliki dan
dikuasai bangsa Indonesia. PDB yang tercipta lebih banyak menguntungkan
Indonesia. Namun, bukan berarti secara 'bersih' dinikmati Indonesia. <i>Fee</i> waralaba
asing akan mengalir 'ke luar', dan terkategorikan sebagai 'kebocoran' ekonomi
Indonesia. </span><span lang="EN-US" style="font-size: 11.5pt;"><o:p></o:p></span></div>
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<br /></div>
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<span style="font-size: 11.5pt;">Dengan uraian anomali
pertumbuhan ekonomi tersebut, jelaslah bahwa pertumbuhan ekonomi semacam itu
bukanlah sesuatu yang harus dibanggakan. Gambaran tersebut lebih menunjukkan
pertumbuhan yang tidak berkualitas. Bahkan kebijakan yang didasarkan
pertumbuhan ekonomi seperti itu sangat mungkin merugikan, dan sasaran yang
dibidik tidak tercapai. Pengambil kebijakan publik dapat terjebak dalam
misinterpretasi, dan<i>pro-growth</i> menjadi tidak <i>pro-job</i> dan <i>pro-poor</i>. </span><span lang="EN-US" style="font-size: 11.5pt;"><o:p></o:p></span></div>
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<b><span lang="EN-US" style="font-size: 11.5pt;">Sumber: </span></b><b><span style="font-size: 11.5pt;">Opini Media Indonesia 25 Maret 2010</span></b><b><span lang="EN-US" style="font-size: 11.5pt;"><o:p></o:p></span></b></div>Teuku Bahran Basyiranhttp://www.blogger.com/profile/10525417589204464156noreply@blogger.com0tag:blogger.com,1999:blog-3600626824018511994.post-90984785170172317232012-07-15T17:16:00.002+02:002012-07-15T17:38:32.788+02:00Sejarah Pemikiran Ekonomi Praklasik, Klasik, Sosialis dan Neoklasik<div align="center" class="MsoNormal" style="text-align: center;">
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<b><span style="background-color: white; font-size: 14pt; line-height: 115%;">Sejarah Pemikiran Ekonomi Kaum </span></b><b><span lang="EN-US" style="background-color: white; font-size: 14pt; line-height: 115%;">Merkantilisme<o:p></o:p></span></b></div>
<div class="MsoListParagraphCxSpFirst" style="margin-left: 14.2pt; mso-add-space: auto; mso-list: l3 level1 lfo2; text-align: justify; text-indent: -14.7pt;">
<a href="http://www.blogger.com/blogger.g?blogID=3600626824018511994" name="211"></a><a href="http://www.blogger.com/blogger.g?blogID=3600626824018511994" name="210"></a><span style="font-family: Symbol; font-size: 12pt; line-height: 115%;">·<span style="font-family: 'Times New Roman'; font-size: 7pt; line-height: normal;"> </span></span><span style="background-color: white; font-size: 12pt; line-height: 115%;">Merkantilis merupakan model kebijakan ekonomi dengan campur tangan
pemerintah yang dominan, proteksionisme serta politik kolonial, ditujukan
dengan neraca perdagangan luar negeri yang menguntungkan .<o:p></o:p></span></div>
<div class="MsoListParagraphCxSpMiddle" style="margin-left: 14.2pt; mso-add-space: auto; mso-list: l3 level1 lfo2; text-align: justify; text-indent: -14.7pt;">
<a href="http://www.blogger.com/blogger.g?blogID=3600626824018511994" name="212"></a><span style="font-family: Symbol; font-size: 12pt; line-height: 115%;">·<span style="font-family: 'Times New Roman'; font-size: 7pt; line-height: normal;"> </span></span><span style="background-color: white; font-size: 12pt; line-height: 115%;">Pemikiran-pemikiran ekonomi lahir pada kaum merkantilis disebabkan
adanya pembagian kerja yang timbul di dalam masyarakat, pembagian kerja secara
teknis dan pembagian kerja teritorial, yang selanjutnya akan mendorong
perdagangan internasional.<o:p></o:p></span></div>
<div class="MsoListParagraphCxSpMiddle" style="margin-left: 14.2pt; mso-add-space: auto; mso-list: l3 level1 lfo2; text-align: justify; text-indent: -14.7pt;">
<a href="http://www.blogger.com/blogger.g?blogID=3600626824018511994" name="213"></a><span style="font-family: Symbol; font-size: 12pt; line-height: 115%;">·<span style="font-family: 'Times New Roman'; font-size: 7pt; line-height: normal;"> </span></span><span style="background-color: white; font-size: 12pt; line-height: 115%;">Pemikiran ekonomi kaum merkantilis merupakan suatu kebijakan yang sangat
melindungi industri, dalam negeri, tetapi menganjurkan persaingan, sementara
itu terjadi pembatasan-pembatasan yang terkontrol dalam kegiatan perdagangan
luar negeri, kebijakan kependudukan yang mendorong keluarga dengan banyak anak,
kegiatan industri di dalam negeri dengan tingkat upah yang rendah. Proteksi
industri yang menganjurkan persaingan dalam negeri, dan tingkat upah yang
rendah mendorong ekspor.<o:p></o:p></span></div>
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<a href="http://www.blogger.com/blogger.g?blogID=3600626824018511994" name="214"></a><span style="font-family: Symbol; font-size: 12pt; line-height: 115%;">·<span style="font-family: 'Times New Roman'; font-size: 7pt; line-height: normal;"> </span></span><span style="background-color: white; font-size: 12pt; line-height: 115%;">Teori kuantitas uang didasarkan pada jumlah uang yang beredar
mempengaruhi tingkat bunga dan tingkat harga barang. Ke luar masuknya
logam-logam mulia mempengaruhi tingkat harga di dalam negeri serta jumlah uang
yang beredar, dan kecepatan uang beredar.<o:p></o:p></span></div>
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<a href="http://www.blogger.com/blogger.g?blogID=3600626824018511994" name="215"></a><span style="font-family: Symbol; font-size: 12pt; line-height: 115%;">·<span style="font-family: 'Times New Roman'; font-size: 7pt; line-height: normal;">
</span></span><span style="background-color: white; font-size: 12pt; line-height: 115%;">Kebijakan ekonomi lebih bersifat
makro, hal ini berhubungan dengan tujuan proteksi industri di dalam negeri, dan
menjaga rencana perdagangan yang menguntungkan, hal ini dilakukan dalam usaha
meningkatkan peranannya dalam perdagangan internasional dan perluasan-perluasan
kolonialisme.<o:p></o:p></span></div>
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<a href="http://www.blogger.com/blogger.g?blogID=3600626824018511994" name="218"></a><a href="http://www.blogger.com/blogger.g?blogID=3600626824018511994" name="217"></a><b><span style="background-color: white; font-size: 14pt; line-height: 115%;">Sejarah Pemikiran Ekonomi Kaum</span></b><b><span lang="EN-US" style="background-color: white; font-size: 14pt; line-height: 115%;"> Pisiokrat</span></b><b><span lang="EN-US" style="background-color: white; line-height: 115%;"><o:p></o:p></span></b></div>
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<span style="font-family: Symbol; font-size: 12pt; line-height: 115%;">·<span style="font-family: 'Times New Roman'; font-size: 7pt; line-height: normal;">
</span></span><span style="background-color: white; font-size: 12pt; line-height: 115%;">Mazhab Pisiokrat tumbuh sebagai kritik
terhadap pemikiran ekonomi Merkantilis, tokoh pemikir yang paling terkenal pada
mazhab ini adalah Francois Quesnay. Sumbangan pemikiran yang terbesar dalam
perkembangan ilmu ekonomi adalah hukum-hukum alamiah, dan menjelaskan arus
lingkaran ekonomi.<o:p></o:p></span></div>
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<a href="http://www.blogger.com/blogger.g?blogID=3600626824018511994" name="219"></a><span style="font-family: Symbol; font-size: 12pt; line-height: 115%;">·<span style="font-family: 'Times New Roman'; font-size: 7pt; line-height: normal;"> </span></span><span style="background-color: white; font-size: 12pt; line-height: 115%;">Inti pemikiran utama dalam mazhab Pisiokrat adalah dituangkan dalam
tabel ekonomi yang terdiri dari classe productive dari kaum petani, classe des
froprietaires dari kaum pemilik tanah, classe sterile atau classe stipendile
yang meliputi kaum pedagang dan industriawan dan classe passieve adalah kaum
pekerja.<o:p></o:p></span></div>
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<a href="http://www.blogger.com/blogger.g?blogID=3600626824018511994" name="220"></a><span style="font-family: Symbol; font-size: 12pt; line-height: 115%;">·<span style="font-family: 'Times New Roman'; font-size: 7pt; line-height: normal;"> </span></span><span style="background-color: white; font-size: 12pt; line-height: 115%;">Pemikiran ekonomi kaum Pisiokrat yang menonjol dalam perkembangan ilmu
ekonomi selain lingkaran arus ekonomi dalam tabel ekonomi yaitu tentang teori
nilai dan harga yang terbagi menjadi tiga yaitu harga dasar barang-barang,
harga penjualan dan harga yang harus dibayar konsumen. Teori uang yang
dikemukakannya adalah sebagai tabir uang (money is veil) dan perlunya pengenaan
pajak untuk kepentingan ekonomi.<o:p></o:p></span></div>
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<a href="http://www.blogger.com/blogger.g?blogID=3600626824018511994" name="221"></a><span lang="EN-US" style="font-family: Symbol; font-size: 12pt; line-height: 115%;">·<span style="font-family: 'Times New Roman'; font-size: 7pt; line-height: normal;">
</span></span><span style="background-color: white; font-size: 12pt; line-height: 115%;">Sumbangan pemikiran ahli Pisiokrat
lain yaitu Jaques Turgot mempunyai dua sumbangan utama terhadap pemikiran
ekonomi yakni teori uang sebagai tabir, dan teori fruktifikasi. Teori uang
sebagai tabir yang mempersulit pengamatan fenomena ekonomi. Namun demikian
pemikiran ini merupakan gagasan ke arah menemukan dasar satuan perhitungan yang
ia, tetapi dikemukakan atas transaksi barter dengan nilai alat tukar dapat
berubah-ubah karena jumlahnya.</span><br />
<a name='more'></a><span lang="EN-US" style="background-color: white; font-size: 12pt; line-height: 115%;"><o:p></o:p></span></div>
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<b><span style="background-color: white; font-size: 14pt; line-height: 115%;">Sejarah Pemikiran Ekonomi Kaum</span></b><b><span lang="EN-US" style="background-color: white; font-size: 14pt; line-height: 115%;"> Klasik</span></b><b><span lang="EN-US" style="background-color: white; line-height: 115%;"><o:p></o:p></span></b></div>
<div class="MsoListParagraphCxSpFirst" style="margin-left: 14.2pt; mso-add-space: auto; mso-list: l11 level1 lfo4; text-align: justify; text-indent: -14.7pt;">
<span style="background-attachment: scroll; background-position: 0px 50%; background-repeat: repeat repeat;"><span style="font-family: Symbol; font-size: 12pt; line-height: 115%;">·<span style="font-family: 'Times New Roman'; font-size: 7pt; line-height: normal;"> </span></span><span style="background-color: white; font-size: 12pt; line-height: 115%;">Filsafat kaum klasik mengenai masyarakat, prinsipil tidak berbeda dengan
filsafat mazhab pisiokrat, kaum klasik mendasarkan diri pada tindakan-tindakan
rasional, dan bertolak dari suatu metode alamiah. Kaum klasik juga memandang
ilmu ekonomi dalam arti luas, dengan perkataan lain secara normatif.<o:p></o:p></span></span></div>
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<a href="http://www.blogger.com/blogger.g?blogID=3600626824018511994" name="35"></a><span style="font-family: Symbol; font-size: 12pt; line-height: 115%;">·<span style="font-family: 'Times New Roman'; font-size: 7pt; line-height: normal;"> </span></span><span style="background-color: white; font-size: 12pt; line-height: 115%;">Politik ekonomi kaum klasik merupakan politik ekonomi laissez faire.
Politik ini menunjukkan diri dalam tindakan-tindakan yang dilakukan oleh mazhab
klasik, dan dengan keseimbangan yang bersifat otomatis, di mana masyarakat
senantiasa secara otomatis akan mencapai keseimbangan pada tingkat full
employment.<o:p></o:p></span></div>
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<a href="http://www.blogger.com/blogger.g?blogID=3600626824018511994" name="36"></a><span style="font-family: Symbol; font-size: 12pt; line-height: 115%;">·<span style="font-family: 'Times New Roman'; font-size: 7pt; line-height: normal;"> </span></span><span style="background-color: white; font-size: 12pt; line-height: 115%;">Asas pengaturan kehidupam perekonomian didasarkan pada mekanisme pasar.
Teori harga merupakan bagian sentral dari mazhab klasik, dan mengajarkan bahwa
proses produksi dan pembagian pendapatan ditentukan oleh mekanisme pasar. Dan
dengan melalui mekanisme permintaan dan penawaran itu akan menuju kepada suatu
keseimbangan (equilibrium). Jadi dalam susunan kehidupan ekonomi yang
didasarkan atas milik perseorangan, inisiatif dan perusahaan orang-perorangan.<o:p></o:p></span></div>
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<a href="http://www.blogger.com/blogger.g?blogID=3600626824018511994" name="37"></a><span style="font-family: Symbol; font-size: 12pt; line-height: 115%;">·<span style="font-family: 'Times New Roman'; font-size: 7pt; line-height: normal;">
</span></span><span style="background-color: white; font-size: 12pt; line-height: 115%;">Ruang lingkup pemikiran ekonomi klasik
meliputi kemerdekaan alamiah, pemikiran pesimistik dan individu serta negara.
Landasan kepentingan pribadi dan kemerdekaan alamiah, mengritik pemikiran
ekonomi sebelumnya, dan kebebasan individulah yang menjadi inti pengembangan
kekayaan bangsa, dengan demikian politik ekonomi klasik pada prinsip laissez faire.<o:p></o:p></span></div>
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<b><span style="background-color: white; font-size: 12pt; line-height: 115%;">Kaum</span></b><b><span lang="EN-US" style="background-color: white; font-size: 12pt; line-height: 115%;"> Klasik Adam Smith</span></b><b><span lang="EN-US" style="background-color: cyan; font-size: 10pt; line-height: 115%;"><o:p></o:p></span></b></div>
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<a href="http://www.blogger.com/blogger.g?blogID=3600626824018511994" name="310"></a><a href="http://www.blogger.com/blogger.g?blogID=3600626824018511994" name="39"></a><span style="font-family: Symbol; font-size: 10pt; line-height: 115%;">·<span style="font-family: 'Times New Roman'; font-size: 7pt; line-height: normal;"> </span></span><span style="background-color: white; font-size: 12pt; line-height: 115%;">Adam Smith adalah seorang pemikir besar dan ilmuwan kelahiran Kirkaldy
Skotlandia tahun 1723, guru besar dalam ilmu falsafah di Universitas Edinburgh,
perhatiannya bidang logika dan etika, yang kemudian semakin diarahkan kepada
masalah-masalah ekonomi. Ia sering bertukar pikiran dengan Quesnay dan Turgot
dan Voltaire.<o:p></o:p></span></div>
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<a href="http://www.blogger.com/blogger.g?blogID=3600626824018511994" name="311"></a><span style="font-family: Symbol; font-size: 10pt; line-height: 115%;">·<span style="font-family: 'Times New Roman'; font-size: 7pt; line-height: normal;"> </span></span><span style="background-color: white; font-size: 12pt; line-height: 115%;">Adam Smith adalah pakar utama dan pelopor dalam mazhab Klasik. Karya
besar yang disebut di atas lazim dianggap sebagai buku standar yang pertama di
bidang pemikiran ekonomi gagasannya adalah sistem ekonomi yang
mengoperasionalkan dasar-dasar ekonomi persaingan bebas yang diatur oleh
invisible hand, pemerintah bertugas melindungi rakyat, menegakkan keadilan dan
menyiapkan sarana dan prasarana kelembagaan umum.<o:p></o:p></span></div>
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<a href="http://www.blogger.com/blogger.g?blogID=3600626824018511994" name="312"></a><span style="font-family: Symbol; font-size: 10pt; line-height: 115%;">·<span style="font-family: 'Times New Roman'; font-size: 7pt; line-height: normal;"> </span></span><span style="background-color: white; font-size: 12pt; line-height: 115%;">Teori nilai yang digunakan Adam Smith adalah teori biaya produksi,
walaupun semula menggunakan teori nilai tenaga kerja. Barang mempunyai nilai
guna dan nilai tukar. Ongkos produksi menentukan harga relatif barang, sehingga
tercipta dua macam harga, yakni harga alamiah dan harga pasar dalam jangka
panjang harga pasar akan cenderung menyamai harga alamiah, dan dengan teori
tersebut timbul konsep paradoks tentang nilai.<o:p></o:p></span></div>
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<a href="http://www.blogger.com/blogger.g?blogID=3600626824018511994" name="313"></a><span lang="EN-US" style="font-family: Symbol; font-size: 10pt; line-height: 115%;">·<span style="font-family: 'Times New Roman'; font-size: 7pt; line-height: normal;">
</span></span><span style="background-color: white; font-size: 12pt; line-height: 115%;">Sumber kekayaan bangsa adalah lahan,
tenaga kerja, keterampilan dan modal. Dengan demikian, timbul persoalan
pembagian pendapatan yakni upah untuk pekerja, laba bagi pemilik modal dan sewa
untuk tuan tanah. Tingkat sewa tanah akan meningkat, sedangkan tingkat upah
menurun, dengan asumsi berlaku dana upah, dan lahan lama-kelamaan menjadi
kurang subur, sedangkan persaingan tingkat laba menurun yang akhirnya mencapai
kegiatan ekonomi yang stationer. Smith berpendapat bahwa pembagian kerja sangat
berguna dalam usaha meningkatkan produktivitas. Pembagian kerja akan mengembangkan
spesialisasi. Pertambahan penduduk berarti meningkatkan tenaga kerja, dalam hal
ini meningkatkan permintaan dan perluasan pasar.</span><span lang="EN-US" style="background-color: white; font-size: 12pt; line-height: 115%;"><o:p></o:p></span></div>
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<span style="background-attachment: scroll; background-position: 0px 50%; background-repeat: repeat repeat;"><b><span style="background-color: white; font-size: 12pt; line-height: 115%;">Kaum</span></b><b><span lang="EN-US" style="background-color: white; font-size: 12pt; line-height: 115%;"> Klasik Jean Batiste Say, Thomas Robert Malthus dan David Ricardo</span></b><b><span lang="EN-US" style="background-color: white; line-height: 115%;"><o:p></o:p></span></b></span></div>
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<a href="http://www.blogger.com/blogger.g?blogID=3600626824018511994" name="316"></a><a href="http://www.blogger.com/blogger.g?blogID=3600626824018511994" name="315"></a><span style="font-family: Symbol; font-size: 10pt; line-height: 115%;">·<span style="font-family: 'Times New Roman'; font-size: 7pt; line-height: normal;"> </span></span><span style="background-color: white; font-size: 12pt; line-height: 115%;">Jean Batiste Say adalah seorang pakar ekonomi kelahiran Perancis yang
berasal dari keluarga saudagar dan menjadi pendukung pemikiran Adam Smith. Say
memperbaiki sistem Adam Smith dengan cara yang lebih sistematis serta logis.
Karya Say yaitu theorie des debouchees (teori tentang pasar dan pemasaran) dan
dikenal sebagai Hukum Say (Say’s Law) yaitu supply creats its oven demand tiap
penawaran akan menciptakan permintaanya sendiri. Menurut Say dalam perekonomian
bebas atau liberal tidak akan terjadi “produksi berlebihan” (over production)
yang sifatnya menyeluruh, begitu juga pengangguran total tidak akan terjadi.
Yang mungkin terjadi menurut Say ialah kelebihan produksi yang sifatnya
sektoral dan juga pengangguran yang sifatnya terbatas (pengangguran friksi).<o:p></o:p></span></div>
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<a href="http://www.blogger.com/blogger.g?blogID=3600626824018511994" name="317"></a><span style="font-family: Symbol; font-size: 10pt; line-height: 115%;">·<span style="font-family: 'Times New Roman'; font-size: 7pt; line-height: normal;"> </span></span><span style="background-color: white; font-size: 12pt; line-height: 115%;">Thomas Robert Malthus dilahirkan tahun 1766 di Inggris, sepuluh tahun
sebelum Adam Smith menerbitkan The Wealth of Nations dan meninggal tahun 1834.
Malthus adalah seorang ilmuwan di bidang teologi yang kemudian memusatkan
perhatiannya kepada masalah-masalah ekonomi dalam perkembangan masyarakat.
Malthus adalah alumnus dari University of Cambridge, Inggris, tempat ia
menyelesaikan pelajaran dalam ilmu matematika dan ilmu sejarah klasik. Malthus
diangkat menjadi Profesor of History and Political Economy di East India
College. Bagian yang paling penting dalam pola dasar pemikiran Malthus dan
kerangka analisisnya ialah menyangkut teori tentang sewa tanah dan teori
tentang penduduk dengan bukunya yang berjudul An Essay on the Principle of
Population. Teori Malthus pada dasarnya sederhana saja. Kelahiran yang tidak
terkontrol menyebabkan penduduk bertambah menurut deret ukur padahal persediaan
bahan makanan bertambah secara deret hitung.<a href="http://www.blogger.com/blogger.g?blogID=3600626824018511994" name="318"></a><o:p></o:p></span></div>
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<span style="font-family: Symbol; font-size: 10pt; line-height: 115%;">·<span style="font-family: 'Times New Roman'; font-size: 7pt; line-height: normal;">
</span></span><span style="background-color: white; font-size: 12pt; line-height: 115%;">Ricardo adalah seorang Pemikir yang
paling menonjol di antara segenap pakar Mazhab Klasik. Ia sangat terkenal
karena kecermatan berpikir, metode pendekatannya hampir seluruhnya deduktif.
David Ricardo telah mengembangkan pemikiran-pemikiran Adam Smith secara lebih
terjabar dan juga lebih sistematis. Dan pendekatannya teoretis deduktif,
pemikirannya didasarkan atas hipotesis yang dijadikan kerangka acuannya untuk
mengkaji berbagai permasalahan menurut pendekatan logika. Teori yang
dikembangkan oleh Ricardo menyangkut empat kelompok permasalahan yaitu: teori
tentang distribusi pendapatan sebagai pembagian hasil dari seluruh produksi dan
disajikan sebagai teori upah, teori sewa tanah, teori bunga dan laba, teori
tentang nilai dan harga, teori perdagangan internasional dan, teori tentang
akumulasi dan perkembangan ekonomi.<o:p></o:p></span></div>
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<b><span style="background-color: white; font-size: 14pt; line-height: 115%;">Sejarah Pemikiran Ekonomi </span></b><b><span lang="EN-US" style="background-color: white; font-size: 14pt; line-height: 115%;">Mahzab Sosialis</span></b><b><span lang="EN-US" style="background-color: white; font-size: 12pt; line-height: 115%;"><o:p></o:p></span></b></div>
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<b><span style="background-color: white; font-size: 12pt; line-height: 115%;">Kaum Perintis Sosialis<o:p></o:p></span></b></div>
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<a href="http://www.blogger.com/blogger.g?blogID=3600626824018511994" name="24"></a><a href="http://www.blogger.com/blogger.g?blogID=3600626824018511994" name="23"></a><span style="font-family: Symbol; font-size: 12pt; line-height: 115%;">·<span style="font-family: 'Times New Roman'; font-size: 7pt; line-height: normal;"> </span></span><span style="background-color: white; font-size: 12pt; line-height: 115%;">Konsep-konsep ekonomi dari kaum perintis ditemukan terutama dalam
ajaran-ajaran agama, kaidah-kaidah hukum, etika atau aturan-aturan moral.
Misalnya dalam kitab Hammurabi dari Babilonia tahun 1700 sM, masyarakat Yunani
telah menjelaskan tentang rincian petunjuk-petunjuk tentang cara-cara
berekonomi.<o:p></o:p></span></div>
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<a href="http://www.blogger.com/blogger.g?blogID=3600626824018511994" name="25"></a><span style="font-family: Symbol; font-size: 12pt; line-height: 115%;">·<span style="font-family: 'Times New Roman'; font-size: 7pt; line-height: normal;"> </span></span><span style="background-color: white; font-size: 12pt; line-height: 115%;">Plato hidup pada abad keempat sebelum Masehi mencerminkan pola pikir
tradisi kaum ningrat. Ia memandang rendah terhadap para pekerja kasar dan
mereka yang mengejar kekayaan. Plato menyadari bahwa produksi merupakan basis
suatu negara dan penganekaragaman (diversivikasi) pekerjaan dalam masyarakat
merupakan keharusan, karena tidak seorang pun yang dapat memenuhi sendiri
berbagai kebutuhannya. Inilah awal dasar pemikiran Prinsip Spesialisasi
kemudian dikembangkan oleh Adam Smith.<o:p></o:p></span></div>
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<a href="http://www.blogger.com/blogger.g?blogID=3600626824018511994" name="26"></a><span style="font-family: Symbol; font-size: 12pt; line-height: 115%;">·<span style="font-family: 'Times New Roman'; font-size: 7pt; line-height: normal;"> </span></span><span style="background-color: white; font-size: 12pt; line-height: 115%;">Aristoteles merupakan tokoh pemikir ulung yang sangat tajam, dan menjadi
dasar analisis ilmuwan modern sebab analisisnya berpangkal dari data. Konsep
pemikiran ekonominya didasarkan pada konsep pengelolaan rumah tangga yang baik,
melalui tukar-menukar. Aristoteleslah yang membedakan dua macam nilai barang,
yaitu nilai guna dan nilai tukar. Ia menolak kehadiran uang dan pinjam-meminjam
uang dengan bunga, uang hanya sebagai alat tukar-menukar saja, jika menumpuk
kekayaan dengan jalan minta/mengambil riba, maka uang menjadi mandul atau tidak
produktif.<o:p></o:p></span></div>
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<a href="http://www.blogger.com/blogger.g?blogID=3600626824018511994" name="27"></a><span style="font-family: Symbol; font-size: 12pt; line-height: 115%;">·<span style="font-family: 'Times New Roman'; font-size: 7pt; line-height: normal;"> </span></span><span style="background-color: white; font-size: 12pt; line-height: 115%;">Xenophon seorang prajurit, sejarawan dan murid Socrates yang mengarang
buku Oikonomikus (pengelolaan rumah tangga). Inti pemikiran Xenophon adalah
pertanian dipandang sebagai dasar kesejahteraan ekonomi, pelayaran dan
perniagaan yang dianjurkan untuk dikembangkan oleh negara, modal patungan dalam
usaha, spesialisasi dan pembagian kerja, konsep perbudakan dan sektor
pertambangan menjadi milik bersama.<o:p></o:p></span></div>
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<a href="http://www.blogger.com/blogger.g?blogID=3600626824018511994" name="28"></a><span style="font-family: Symbol; font-size: 12pt; line-height: 115%;">·<span style="font-family: 'Times New Roman'; font-size: 7pt; line-height: normal;">
</span></span><span style="background-color: white; font-size: 12pt; line-height: 115%;">Thomas Aquinas (1225-1274) seorang
filosof dan tokoh pemikir ek</span><span lang="EN-US" style="background-color: white; font-size: 12pt; line-height: 115%;">on</span><span style="background-color: white; font-size: 12pt; line-height: 115%;">omi pada abad pertengahan, mengemukakan
tentang konsep keadilan yang dibagi dua menjadi keadilan distributife dan
keadilan konvensasi, dengan menegakkan hukum Tuhan maka dalam jual-beli harus
dilakukan dengan harga yang adil (just-price) sedang bunga uang adalah riba.
Tetapi masalah riba, upah yang adil dan harga yang layak ini merupakan masalah
yang terus-menerus diperdebatkan dalam ilmu ekonomi.<o:p></o:p></span></div>
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<b><span style="background-color: white; font-size: 12pt; line-height: 115%;">Mazhab Sosialis dan Kritik terhadap Pemikiran Ekonomi
Klasik<o:p></o:p></span></b></div>
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<a href="http://www.blogger.com/blogger.g?blogID=3600626824018511994" name="44"></a><a href="http://www.blogger.com/blogger.g?blogID=3600626824018511994" name="43"></a><span style="font-family: Symbol; font-size: 10pt; line-height: 115%;">·<span style="font-family: 'Times New Roman'; font-size: 7pt; line-height: normal;"> </span></span><span style="background-color: white; font-size: 12pt; line-height: 115%;">Kritik yang dikemukakan oleh mazhab sosialis berhubungan dengan doktrin
laissez faire dengan pengendalian tangan tak kentara (invisible hand) dan
intervensi pemerintah. Pemikiran yang dibahas adalah tentang teori nilai,
pembagian kerja, teori kependudukan, dan the law of deminishing return, dan
kritiknya karena asumsi bahwa negaralah yang berhak untuk mengatur kekayaan
bangsa.<o:p></o:p></span></div>
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<a href="http://www.blogger.com/blogger.g?blogID=3600626824018511994" name="45"></a><span style="font-family: Symbol; font-size: 10pt; line-height: 115%;">·<span style="font-family: 'Times New Roman'; font-size: 7pt; line-height: normal;"> </span></span><span style="background-color: white; font-size: 12pt; line-height: 115%;">Para pengritik mazhab klasik terutama dari Lauderdale, Sismonde, Carey,
List dan Bastiat. Lauderdale mengajukan kritik bahwa nilai barang ditentukan
oleh kelangkaan dan permintaan, sedangkan Muller dan List melihat bahwa nilai
barang ditentukan juga tidak hanya oleh modal fisik, tetapi juga oleh modal
spiritual dan modal mental. Demikian juga Carey melihat tentang teori nilai
dari segi teori biaya reproduksi, sedangkan Bastiat bahwa faktor-faktor yang
menentukan nilai barang adalah besarnya tenaga kerja yang dikorbankan pada
pembuatan barang, menurut beliau hal-hal yang menjadi karunia alam tidak
mempunyai nilai, kecuali telah diolah manusia.<o:p></o:p></span></div>
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<a href="http://www.blogger.com/blogger.g?blogID=3600626824018511994" name="46"></a><span style="font-family: Symbol; font-size: 10pt; line-height: 115%;">·<span style="font-family: 'Times New Roman'; font-size: 7pt; line-height: normal;"> </span></span><span style="background-color: white; font-size: 12pt; line-height: 115%;">Sismonde mengajukan keberatan terhadap teori kependudukan Malthus, dan
tidak mungkin dapat dikendalikan dengan cara-cara yang dikemukakan Malthus,
sebab sangat tergantung pada kemauan manusia dan kesempatan kerja, dan kawin
yang selalu dikaitkan dengan kemampuan ekonomi. Mesin mempunyai fungsi untuk
menggantikan tenaga kerja manusia, aspek mesin tidak selalu mempunyai
keuntungan dalam meningkatkan kekayaan bangsa. Carey berpendapat pertambahan
modal lebih cepat dari pertambahan penduduk.<o:p></o:p></span></div>
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<a href="http://www.blogger.com/blogger.g?blogID=3600626824018511994" name="47"></a><span style="font-family: Symbol; font-size: 10pt; line-height: 115%;">·<span style="font-family: 'Times New Roman'; font-size: 7pt; line-height: normal;"> </span></span><span style="background-color: white; font-size: 12pt; line-height: 115%;">Sismonde berpendapat bahwa pembagian kerja skala produksi menjadi
semakin besar dan tidak dapat dikendalikan sehingga terjadi kelebihan produksi.
Muller berpendapat bahwa pembagian kerja telah membawa pekerjaan ke dalam
perbudakan dan tenaga kerja menjadi mesin. Pemikiran List bukan pembagian kerja
yang paling penting tetapi mengetahui dan menggunakan kekuatan-kekuatan
produktif dalam usaha meningkatkan kekayaan bangsa.<o:p></o:p></span></div>
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<a href="http://www.blogger.com/blogger.g?blogID=3600626824018511994" name="48"></a><span lang="EN-US" style="font-family: Symbol; font-size: 10pt; line-height: 115%;">·<span style="font-family: 'Times New Roman'; font-size: 7pt; line-height: normal;">
</span></span><span style="background-color: white; font-size: 12pt; line-height: 115%;">Pemikiran John Stuart Mill banyak
dipengaruhi oleh Jeremy Bentam yang beraliran falsafah utilitarian, bebannya
sangat berat dalam mempelajari falsafah, politik dan ilmu sosial, yang
menjadikan mental breakdown. Kritik terhadap ekonomi klasik terutama pada
Smith, Malthus dan Ricardo, dipelajari oleh Mill. Sementara itu pemikiran
ekonomi sosialis mulai berkembang, dasar sistem ekonomi klasik adalah laissez
faire, hipotesis kependudukan Malthus, hukum lahan yang semakin berkurang,
teori dana upah mendapat tantangan. Dalam era inilah pemikiran Mill dituangkan
dalam bukunya yang berjudul Principle of Political Economy, dengan pemikiran
yang eklektiknya.</span><a href="http://www.blogger.com/blogger.g?blogID=3600626824018511994" name="49"></a><span lang="EN-US" style="background-color: white; font-size: 12pt; line-height: 115%;"><o:p></o:p></span></div>
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<span lang="EN-US" style="font-family: Symbol; font-size: 10pt; line-height: 115%;">·<span style="font-family: 'Times New Roman'; font-size: 7pt; line-height: normal;">
</span></span><span style="background-color: white; font-size: 12pt; line-height: 115%;">Sumbangan yang paling besar Mill
adalah metode ilmu ekonomi yang bersifat deduktif dan bersama dengan metode
induktif. Karena hipotesisnya belum didukung dengan data empirik, di samping
itu pembahasannya tentang teori nilai tidak melihat dari biaya produksi, tetapi
telah menggunakan sisi permintaan melalui teori elastisitas. Mill menjelaskan
bahwa hukum yang mengatur produksi lain dengan hukum distribusi pendapatan,
juga memperkenalkan human capital investment yaitu keterampilan, kerajinan dan
moral tenaga kerja dalam meningkatkan produktivitas.</span><span lang="EN-US" style="background-color: white; font-size: 12pt; line-height: 115%;"><o:p></o:p></span></div>
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<b><span lang="EN-US" style="background-color: white; font-size: 12pt; line-height: 115%;">Mazhab Sosialis
Utopis</span></b><span lang="EN-US" style="background-color: white; line-height: 115%;"><o:p></o:p></span></div>
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<a href="http://www.blogger.com/blogger.g?blogID=3600626824018511994" name="412"></a><a href="http://www.blogger.com/blogger.g?blogID=3600626824018511994" name="411"></a><span style="font-family: Symbol; font-size: 10pt; line-height: 115%;">·<span style="font-family: 'Times New Roman'; font-size: 7pt; line-height: normal;"> </span></span><span style="background-color: white; font-size: 12pt; line-height: 115%;">Dari pandangan pemikiran yang revolusioner Karl Marx dan Enggel
pemikiran ini biasa disebut kaum sosialis ilmiah dan ada yang tetap
mempertahankan dengan cara-cara yang bersifat ideal dan terlepas dari kekuasaan
politik disebut sosialis utopis dengan dipelopori oleh Thomas More, Francis Bacon,
Thomas Campanella, Oliver Cromwell, Gerard Winstanley, James Harrington..<o:p></o:p></span></div>
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<a href="http://www.blogger.com/blogger.g?blogID=3600626824018511994" name="413"></a><span style="font-family: Symbol; font-size: 10pt; line-height: 115%;">·<span style="font-family: 'Times New Roman'; font-size: 7pt; line-height: normal;"> </span></span><span style="background-color: white; font-size: 12pt; line-height: 115%;">Perkataan Utopis berasal dari judul buku Thomas More dalam tahun 1516
Tentang Keadaan Negara yang Sempurna dan Pulau Baru yang Utopis. Francis Bacon
dalam bukunya Nova Atlantis (1623), dan Thomas Campanella (1623) dalam bukunya
Negara Matahari (Civitas Solis).<o:p></o:p></span></div>
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<a href="http://www.blogger.com/blogger.g?blogID=3600626824018511994" name="414"></a><span style="font-family: Symbol; font-size: 10pt; line-height: 115%;">·<span style="font-family: 'Times New Roman'; font-size: 7pt; line-height: normal;">
</span></span><span style="background-color: white; font-size: 12pt; line-height: 115%;">Saint Simon (1760-1825), dari Perancis
bukunya The New Christianity dan Charles Fourier (1772-1837) bercita-cita
menciptakan tata dunia baru yang lebih baik bukan dengan kotbah tetapi dengan
model percontohan. Louis Blanc mengusahakan agar didirikan ateliers sociesux
yakni pabrik-pabrik yang dihimpun negara. Pierre Joseph Proudhom (1809-1865 )
Beliau yakin akan asas persamaan dan lama sekali tidak setuju dengan hak milik pribadi
terhadap perusahaan.<o:p></o:p></span></div>
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<b><span lang="EN-US" style="background-color: white; font-size: 12pt; line-height: 115%;">Mazhab Sosialis
Ilmiah</span></b><span lang="EN-US" style="background-color: white; font-size: 12pt; line-height: 115%;"><o:p></o:p></span></div>
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<a href="http://www.blogger.com/blogger.g?blogID=3600626824018511994" name="417"></a><a href="http://www.blogger.com/blogger.g?blogID=3600626824018511994" name="416"></a><span style="font-family: Symbol; font-size: 10pt; line-height: 115%;">·<span style="font-family: 'Times New Roman'; font-size: 7pt; line-height: normal;"> </span></span><span style="background-color: white; font-size: 12pt; line-height: 115%;">Karl Marx dilahirkan di Treves Jerman dan seorang keturunan Yahudi. Ia
seorang ilmuwan dan pemikir besar bidang filosof serta Pemimpin Sosialisme
Modern. Ia belajar di Universitas Bonn kemudian di Universitas Berlin di Jerman
dan memperoleh sarjana bidang Filsafat. Dalam masa studinya ia banyak
dipengaruhi oleh Friedrich Hegel seorang Filosof Besar Jerman bidang falsafah
murni.<o:p></o:p></span></div>
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<a href="http://www.blogger.com/blogger.g?blogID=3600626824018511994" name="418"></a><span style="font-family: Symbol; font-size: 10pt; line-height: 115%;">·<span style="font-family: 'Times New Roman'; font-size: 7pt; line-height: normal;"> </span></span><span style="background-color: white; font-size: 12pt; line-height: 115%;">Friedrich Engels, berasal dari kalangan usahawan besar di Jerman,
keluarganya memiliki sejumlah perusahaan industri tekstil di Jerman maupun di
Inggris. Sejak usia muda Engels menaruh minat terhadap ilmu falsafah dan ilmu
pengetahuan masyarakat. Nalurinya tergugah oleh apa yang diamatinya dan
disaksikannya sendiri mengenai kehidupan masyarakat dalam lingkungan kawasan
industri di Jerman dan di Inggris. Engels bertemu dengan Marx tahun 1840 di
Paris, sewaktu Marx hidup dalam pembuangan.<o:p></o:p></span></div>
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<a href="http://www.blogger.com/blogger.g?blogID=3600626824018511994" name="419"></a><span style="font-family: Symbol; font-size: 10pt; line-height: 115%;">·<span style="font-family: 'Times New Roman'; font-size: 7pt; line-height: normal;"> </span></span><span style="background-color: white; font-size: 12pt; line-height: 115%;">Teori tentang perkembangan ekonomi menurut Marx sebenarnya dapat dibagi
menjadi tiga bagian, pertama pemikirannya tentang proses akumulasi dan
konsentrasi, kedua teori tentang proses kesengsaraan/pemiskinan yang meluas
(die verelendung atau increasing misery), ketiga teori tentang tingkat laba
yang cenderung menurun.<o:p></o:p></span></div>
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<a href="http://www.blogger.com/blogger.g?blogID=3600626824018511994" name="420"></a><span style="font-family: Symbol; font-size: 10pt; line-height: 115%;">·<span style="font-family: 'Times New Roman'; font-size: 7pt; line-height: normal;"> </span></span><span style="background-color: white; font-size: 12pt; line-height: 115%;">Menurut teori konsentrasi perusahaan-perusahaan makin lama makin besar,
sedangkan jumlahnya makin sedikit. Perusahaan-perusahaan besar bersaing dengan
perusahan kecil maka perusahaan kecil akan kalah dalam persaingan dan kemudian
perusahaan kecil lenyap. Timbullah perusahaan-perusahaan raksasa. Para
pengusaha kecil dan golongan menengah menjadi orang miskin.<o:p></o:p></span></div>
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<a href="http://www.blogger.com/blogger.g?blogID=3600626824018511994" name="421"></a><span lang="EN-US" style="font-family: Symbol; font-size: 10pt; line-height: 115%;">·<span style="font-family: 'Times New Roman'; font-size: 7pt; line-height: normal;">
</span></span><span style="background-color: white; font-size: 12pt; line-height: 115%;">Sedangkan teori akumulasi menyatakan
bahwa para pengusaha raksasa semakin lama semakin kaya dan menumpuk kekayaan
yang terkonsentrasi pada beberapa orang, dan para pengusaha kecil akhirnya
jatuh miskin dan pengusaha kecil yang berdiri sendiri menjadi proletariat.
Sejauhmana proses akumulasi yang dimaksud di atas bisa berjalan tergantung dari
a) tingkat nilai surplus, b) tingkat produktivitas tenaga kerja, dan c)
perimbangan bagian nilai surplus untuk konsumsi terhadap bagian yang disalurkan
sebagai tambahan modal.</span><span lang="EN-US" style="background-color: white; font-size: 12pt; line-height: 115%;"><o:p></o:p></span></div>
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<b><span style="background-color: white; font-size: 14pt; line-height: 115%;">Sejarah Pemikiran Ekonomi </span></b><b><span lang="EN-US" style="background-color: white; font-size: 14pt; line-height: 115%;">Neoklasik</span></b><span lang="EN-US" style="background-color: white; font-size: 12pt; line-height: 115%;"><o:p></o:p></span></div>
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<span style="background-attachment: scroll; background-position: 0px 50%; background-repeat: repeat repeat;"><b><span lang="EN-US" style="background-color: white; font-size: 12pt; line-height: 115%;">Perintis Analisis Marjinal</span></b><span lang="EN-US" style="background-color: white; font-size: 12pt; line-height: 115%;"><o:p></o:p></span></span></div>
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<a href="http://www.blogger.com/blogger.g?blogID=3600626824018511994" name="54"></a><a href="http://www.blogger.com/blogger.g?blogID=3600626824018511994" name="53"></a><span style="font-family: Symbol; font-size: 10pt; line-height: 115%;">·<span style="font-family: 'Times New Roman'; font-size: 7pt; line-height: normal;"> </span></span><span style="background-color: white; font-size: 12pt; line-height: 115%;">Mazhab neoklasik telah mengubah pandangan tentang ekonomi baik dalam
teori maupun dalam metodologinya. Teori nilai tidak lagi didasarkan pada nilai
tenaga kerja atau biaya produksi tetapi telah beralih pada kepuasan marjinal
(marginal utility). Pendekatan ini merupakan pendekatan yang baru dalam teori
ekonomi.<o:p></o:p></span></div>
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<a href="http://www.blogger.com/blogger.g?blogID=3600626824018511994" name="55"></a><span style="font-family: Symbol; font-size: 10pt; line-height: 115%;">·<span style="font-family: 'Times New Roman'; font-size: 7pt; line-height: normal;"> </span></span><span style="background-color: white; font-size: 12pt; line-height: 115%;">Salah satu pendiri mazhab neoklasik yaitu Gossen, dia telah memberikan
sumbangan dalam pemikiran ekonomi yang kemudian disebut sebagai Hukum Gossen I
dan II. Hukum Gossen I menjelaskan hubungan kuantitas barang yang dikonsumsi
dan tingkat kepuasan yang diperoleh, sedangkan Hukum Gossen II, bagaimana
konsumen mengalokasikan pendapatannya untuk berbagai jenis barang yang
diperlukannya. Selain Gossen, Jevons dan Menger juga mengembangkan teori nilai
dari kepuasan marjinal. Jevons berpendapat bahwa perilaku individulah yang
berperan dalam menentukan nilai barang. Dan perbedaan preferences yang
menimbulkan perbedaan harga. Sedangkan Menger menjelaskan teori nilai dari orde
berbagai jenis barang, menurut dia nilai suatu barang ditentukan oleh tingkat
kepuasan terendah yang dapat dipenuhinya. Dengan teori orde barang ini maka
tercakup sekaligus teori distribusi.<o:p></o:p></span></div>
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<a href="http://www.blogger.com/blogger.g?blogID=3600626824018511994" name="56"></a><span style="font-family: Symbol; font-size: 10pt; line-height: 115%;">·<span style="font-family: 'Times New Roman'; font-size: 7pt; line-height: normal;">
</span></span><span style="background-color: white; font-size: 12pt; line-height: 115%;">Pemikiran yang sangat mengagumkan yang
disusun oleh Walras tentang teori keseimbangan umum melalui empat sistem
persamaan yang serempak. Dalam sistem itu terjadi keterkaitan antara berbagai
aktivitas ekonomi seperti teori produksi, konsumsi dan distribusi. Asumsi yang
digunakan Walras adalah persaingan sempurna, jumlah modal, tenaga kerja, dan
lahan terbatas, sedangkan teknologi produksi dan selera konsumen tetap. Jika
terjadi perubahan pada salah satu asumsi ini maka terjadi perubahan yang
berkaitan dengan seluruh aktivitas ekonomi<o:p></o:p></span></div>
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<a href="http://www.blogger.com/blogger.g?blogID=3600626824018511994" name="59"></a><a href="http://www.blogger.com/blogger.g?blogID=3600626824018511994" name="58"></a><b><span lang="EN-US" style="background-color: white; font-size: 12pt; line-height: 115%;">Teori Produktivitas Marjinal<o:p></o:p></span></b></div>
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<span style="font-family: Symbol; font-size: 10pt; line-height: 115%;">·<span style="font-family: 'Times New Roman'; font-size: 7pt; line-height: normal;">
</span></span><span style="background-color: white; font-size: 12pt; line-height: 115%;">Dasar pemikiran mazhab neoklasik pada
generasi kedua lebih akurasi dan tajam karena bila dibandingkan dengan
pemikiran ekonomi pada kelompok generasi pertama neoklasik. Hal ini dapat
terjadi karena pemikiran generasi kedua menjabarkan lebih lanjut perilaku
variabel-variabel ekonomi yang sudah dibahas sebelumnya. Lingkupan telah
berkembang dari produksi, konsumsi, dan distribusi yang lebih umum beralih pada
penjelasan yang lebih tajam.<o:p></o:p></span></div>
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<a href="http://www.blogger.com/blogger.g?blogID=3600626824018511994" name="510"></a><span style="font-family: Symbol; font-size: 10pt; line-height: 115%;">·<span style="font-family: 'Times New Roman'; font-size: 7pt; line-height: normal;"> </span></span><span style="background-color: white; font-size: 12pt; line-height: 115%;">Pertentangan pemikiran antara para ahli neoklasik seperti J.B. Clark
dapat menjadi sumber inspirasi dari perkembangan ilmu ekonomi dalam menjelaskan
teori distribusi fungsional, ditafsirkan oleh J.B Clark mempunyai nilai etik,
yang secara langsung membantah teori eksploitasi. Dengan teori produktivitas
marjinal upah tenaga kerja, laba serta lahan dan bunga ditetapkan dengan
objektif dan adil. Tetapi masalahnya, apakah setiap pekerja mendapat upah sama
dengan PPMt nya?<o:p></o:p></span></div>
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<a href="http://www.blogger.com/blogger.g?blogID=3600626824018511994" name="511"></a><span style="font-family: Symbol; font-size: 10pt; line-height: 115%;">·<span style="font-family: 'Times New Roman'; font-size: 7pt; line-height: normal;"> </span></span><span style="background-color: white; font-size: 12pt; line-height: 115%;">Penggunaan pendekatan matematis dalam analisis ekonomi terutama dalam
fungsi produksi semakin teknis, dan dengan penggunaan asumsi-asumsi yang
dialaminya juga bertambah seperti dalam kondisi skala tetap, meningkat atau
menurun. Hal ini dikaitkan pula dengan bentuk kurva ongkos rata-rata, oleh
Wicksell. Hal ini merupakan sumbangan besar dalam pembahasan ongkos perusahaan
dan industri. Pada saat kurva ongkos rata-rata menurun, sebenarnya pada fungsi
produksi terjadi proses increasing returns, dan pada saat kurva ongkos naik,
pada kurva produksi terjadi keadaan decreasing returns. Selanjutnya, pada saat
ongkos rata-rata sampai pada titik minimum, pada fungsi produksi berlaku asumsi
constant return to scale.<o:p></o:p></span></div>
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<a href="http://www.blogger.com/blogger.g?blogID=3600626824018511994" name="512"></a><span style="font-family: Symbol; font-size: 10pt; line-height: 115%;">·<span style="font-family: 'Times New Roman'; font-size: 7pt; line-height: normal;">
</span></span><span style="background-color: white; font-size: 12pt; line-height: 115%;">Pemikiran lain yang menjadi sumber
kontroversi seperti pandangan Bohm Bawerk telah menimbulkan kontroversi pula
tentang hubungan antara modal dan bunga. Kontroversi ini pun timbul dari
pandangan J.B. Clark. Clark mempunyai pendapat bahwa barang-barang sekarang
mempunyai nilai lebih tinggi daripada masa depan, karena itu timbullah bunga.
Tetapi, bunga juga dipengaruhi oleh produktivitas melalui keunggulan teknik.
Bohm Bawerk memberikan adanya premium atau agio, karena kebutuhan sekarang
lebih tinggi daripada masa datang. Tetapi, Fisher melihat dari arus pendapatan
masa depan perlu dinilai sekarang, yang dipengaruhi oleh kekuatan subjektif dan
objektif. Fisher menjelaskan pula terjadinya bunga melalui permintaan dan
penawaran terhadap tabungan dan investasi. Fisher memberi sumbangan pula pada
tingkat bunga. Tingkat bunga merupakan marginal rate of return over cost.<o:p></o:p></span></div>
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<a href="http://www.blogger.com/blogger.g?blogID=3600626824018511994" name="515"></a><a href="http://www.blogger.com/blogger.g?blogID=3600626824018511994" name="514"></a><b><span lang="EN-US" style="background-color: white; font-size: 12pt; line-height: 115%;">Pemikiran Alfred Marshall sebagai Bapak Ekonomi Neoklasik</span></b><span class="apple-converted-space"><b><i><span style="background-color: white; color: #333333; font-family: Arial, sans-serif; font-size: 12pt; line-height: 115%;"> </span></i></b></span><span class="apple-converted-space"><b><i><span lang="EN-US" style="background-color: white; color: #333333; font-family: Arial, sans-serif; font-size: 12pt; line-height: 115%;"><o:p></o:p></span></i></b></span></div>
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<span style="font-family: Symbol; font-size: 10pt; line-height: 115%;">·<span style="font-family: 'Times New Roman'; font-size: 7pt; line-height: normal;">
</span></span><span style="background-color: white; font-size: 12pt; line-height: 115%;">Sumbangan yang paling terkenal dari
pemikiran Marshall dalam teori nilai merupakan sitetis antara pemikiran pemula
dari marjinalis dan pemikiran Klasik. Menurutnya, bekerjanya kedua kekuatan,
yakni permintaan dan penawaran, ibarat bekerjanya dua mata gunting. Dengan
demikian, analisis ongkos produksi merupakan pendukung sisi penawaran dan teori
kepuasan marjinal sebagai inti pembahasan permintaan. Untuk memudahkan
pembahasan keseimbangan parsial, maka digunakannya asumsi ceteris paribus,
sedangkan untuk memperhitungkan unsur waktu ke dalam analisisnya, maka pasar
diklasifikasikan ke dalam jangka sangat pendek, jangka pendek, dan jangka
panjang. Dalam membahas kepuasan marjinal terselip asumsi lain, yakni kepuasan
marjinal uang yang tetap.<o:p></o:p></span></div>
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<a href="http://www.blogger.com/blogger.g?blogID=3600626824018511994" name="516"></a><span style="font-family: Symbol; font-size: 10pt; line-height: 115%;">·<span style="font-family: 'Times New Roman'; font-size: 7pt; line-height: normal;"> </span></span><span style="background-color: white; font-size: 12pt; line-height: 115%;">Pemikiran Alfred Marshall mahir dalam menggunakan peralatan matematika
ke dalam analisis ekonomi. Dia memahami, bahwa untuk memudahkan pembaca, maka
catatan-catatan matematikanya diletakkan pada bagian catatan kaki dan pada
lampiran bukunya. Pembahasannya tentang kepuasan marjinal telah mulai sebelum
1870, sebelum buku Jevons terbit, tetapi karena orangnya sangat teliti dan
modes, dia tidak mau cepat-cepat menerbitkan bukunya.<o:p></o:p></span></div>
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<a href="http://www.blogger.com/blogger.g?blogID=3600626824018511994" name="517"></a><span style="font-family: Symbol; font-size: 10pt; line-height: 115%;">·<span style="font-family: 'Times New Roman'; font-size: 7pt; line-height: normal;"> </span></span><span style="background-color: white; font-size: 12pt; line-height: 115%;">Dalam pembahasan sisi permintaan, Marshall telah menghitung koefisien
barang yang diminta akibat terjadinya perubahan harga secara relatif. Nilai
koefisien ini dapat sama dengan satu, lebih besar dan lebih kecil dari satu.
Tetapi, ada dua masalah yang belum mendapat penyelesaian dalam hal sisi
permintaan, yakni aspek barang-barang pengganti dan efek pendapatan. Robert
Giffen telah dapat membantu penyelesaian kaitan konsumsi dan pendapatan dengan
permintaannya terhadap barang-barang, sehingga ditemukan Giffen Paradox.
Peranan substitusi kemudian diselesaikan oleh Slurtky.<o:p></o:p></span></div>
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<a href="http://www.blogger.com/blogger.g?blogID=3600626824018511994" name="518"></a><span style="font-family: Symbol; font-size: 10pt; line-height: 115%;">·<span style="font-family: 'Times New Roman'; font-size: 7pt; line-height: normal;"> </span></span><span style="background-color: white; font-size: 12pt; line-height: 115%;">Marshall menemukan surplus konsumen. Pengertian ini dikaitkan pula
dengan welfare economics. Bahwa konsumen keseluruhan mengeluarkan uang belanja
lebih kecil daripada kemampuannya membeli. Jika itu terjadi maka terjadi
surplus konsumen. Selama pajak yang dikenakan pada konsumen lebih kecil
daripada surplusnya itu, maka kesejahteraannya tidak menurun. Tetapi, pajak
juga dapat digunakan untuk subsidi, terutama bagi industri-industri yang
struktur ongkosnya telah meningkat. Marshall menjelaskan pula mengapa kurva
ongkos total rata-rata menurun dan meningkat. Hal ini berkaitan dengan faktor
internal dan eksternal perusahaan atau industri.<o:p></o:p></span></div>
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<span style="font-family: Symbol; font-size: 10pt; line-height: 115%;">·<span style="font-family: 'Times New Roman'; font-size: 7pt; line-height: normal;">
</span></span><span style="background-color: white; font-size: 12pt; line-height: 115%;">Mekanisme permintaan dan penawaran
dapat mendatangkan ketidakstabilan, karena setiap usaha yang dilakukan untuk
kembali ke posisi seimbang ternyata membuat tingkat harga dan jumlah barang
menjauhi titik keseimbangan. Keadaan tidak stabil itu terjadi jika kurva </span><span lang="EN-US" style="background-color: white; font-size: 12pt; line-height: 115%;">p</span><span style="background-color: white; font-size: 12pt; line-height: 115%;">enawaran berjalan
dari kiri-atas ke kanan-bawah. Jika variabel kuantitas independen, terjadi
kestabilan, tetapi jika berubah harga menjadi independen, maka keadaan menjadi
tidak stabil.<o:p></o:p></span></div>
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<a href="http://www.blogger.com/blogger.g?blogID=3600626824018511994" name="64"></a><a href="http://www.blogger.com/blogger.g?blogID=3600626824018511994" name="63"></a><b><span lang="EN-US" style="background-color: white; font-size: 12pt; line-height: 115%;">Mazhab Institisionalisme<o:p></o:p></span></b></div>
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<span style="font-family: Symbol; font-size: 10pt; line-height: 115%;">·<span style="font-family: 'Times New Roman'; font-size: 7pt; line-height: normal;">
</span></span><span style="background-color: white; font-size: 12pt; line-height: 115%;">Inti pemikiran Veblen dapat dinyatakan
dalam beberapa kenyataan ekonomi yang terlihat dalam perilaku individu dan
masyarakat tidak hanya disebabkan oleh motivasi ekonomi tetapi juga karena
motivasi lain (seperti motivasi sosial dan kejiwaan), maka Veblen tidak puas
terhadap gambaran teoretis tentang perilaku individu dan masyarakat dalam
pemikiran ekonomi ortodoks. Dengan demikian, ilmu ekonomi menurut Veblen jauh
lebih luas daripada yang ditemukan dalam pandangan ahli-ahli ekonomi ortodoks.<o:p></o:p></span></div>
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<a href="http://www.blogger.com/blogger.g?blogID=3600626824018511994" name="65"></a><span style="font-family: Symbol; font-size: 10pt; line-height: 115%;">·<span style="font-family: 'Times New Roman'; font-size: 7pt; line-height: normal;"> </span></span><span style="background-color: white; font-size: 12pt; line-height: 115%;">Revolusi perkembangan pemikiran yang dikemukakan Veblen yaitu dengan
memperluas lingkup pengkajian ilmu ekonomi, membawa akibat perluasan dan
perubahan dalam metodologi, andaian-andaian, dan perilaku variabel-variabel
ekonomi. Veblen melihat pengkajian ilmu ekonomi dari berbagai aspek ilmu sosial
sehingga diperlukan interdisiplin. Oleh karena itu pula Veblen mendapat tuduhan
bukan sebagai seorang pemikir ekonomi, tetapi sebagai seorang sociologist.<o:p></o:p></span></div>
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<a href="http://www.blogger.com/blogger.g?blogID=3600626824018511994" name="66"></a><span style="font-family: Symbol; font-size: 10pt; line-height: 115%;">·<span style="font-family: 'Times New Roman'; font-size: 7pt; line-height: normal;"> </span></span><span style="background-color: white; font-size: 12pt; line-height: 115%;">Pandangan pemikiran Veblen yang utama bahwa teori-teori ekonomi
ortodoks, seperti teori konsumsi, perilaku bisnis, andaian-andaian laba
maksimal, persaingan sempurna ditolaknya. Persaingan sempurna hampir tidak
terjadi, yang banyak terjadi adalah monopoli, bukan persaingan harga, tetapi
harga ditetapkan lebih tinggi. Konflik-konflik yang terjadi bukan lagi antara
tenaga kerja dan pemilik modal, tetapi antara bisnismen dengan para teknisi.
Karena dunia bisnis telah dikuasai oleh mesin, maka peranan teknisilah yang
menentukan proses produksi.<o:p></o:p></span></div>
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<a href="http://www.blogger.com/blogger.g?blogID=3600626824018511994" name="67"></a><span style="font-family: Symbol; font-size: 10pt; line-height: 115%;">·<span style="font-family: 'Times New Roman'; font-size: 7pt; line-height: normal;">
</span></span><span style="background-color: white; font-size: 12pt; line-height: 115%;">Selanjutnya pandangan Veblen pada
tahap awal sukar dipahami oleh ahli-ahli ekonomi, karena dia menggunakan
istilah-istilah yang datang dari disiplin lain. Namun demikian,
pandangan-pandangannya telah mendorong berkembangnya aliran ekonomi kelembagaan
Amerika Serikat. Murid-muridnya melanjutkan dan melakukan pengembangan terhadap
pemikiran- pemikirannya.<o:p></o:p></span></div>
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<b><span lang="EN-US" style="background-color: white; font-size: 12pt; line-height: 115%;">Tindakan Koektif dan
Surplus yang tidak Produktif</span></b><span lang="EN-US" style="background-color: white; font-size: 12pt; line-height: 115%;"><o:p></o:p></span></div>
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<a href="http://www.blogger.com/blogger.g?blogID=3600626824018511994" name="610"></a><a href="http://www.blogger.com/blogger.g?blogID=3600626824018511994" name="69"></a><span style="font-family: Symbol; font-size: 10pt; line-height: 115%;">·<span style="font-family: 'Times New Roman'; font-size: 7pt; line-height: normal;"> </span></span><span style="background-color: white; font-size: 12pt; line-height: 115%;">Mitchell seorang ilmuwan sejati yang tidak terpengaruh oleh pemikiran
lain ia mempunyai pandangan sendiri. Oleh karena itu tidak semua pandangan
Veblen disetujuinya, bahkan di samping pemikiran ekonomi ortodoks, pandangan
Veblen mendapat kritik. Mitchell berkeberatan terhadap asumsi-asumsi, logika
yang abstrak ekonomi ortodoks, karena itu dia tidak pernah menggunakannya
sebagai teori dalam penelitian. Dia lebih menekankan penelitian empirik dan
menjelaskan data dengan deskriptif. Pendekatan sejarah, dengan mempelajari
sebab-sebab yang menjadi kumulatif secara evolusioner digunakannya dalam
analisis siklus bisnis. Fluktuasi kegiatan ekonomi dapat diamati dari
keputusan-keputusan pengusaha, reaksi-reaksi pengusaha terhadap perubahan laba.
Siklus-bisnis terdiri beberapa tahap, yakni resesi, depresi, pemulihan dan
masa-masa makmur (boom).<o:p></o:p></span></div>
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<a href="http://www.blogger.com/blogger.g?blogID=3600626824018511994" name="611"></a><span style="font-family: Symbol; font-size: 10pt; line-height: 115%;">·<span style="font-family: 'Times New Roman'; font-size: 7pt; line-height: normal;"> </span></span><span style="background-color: white; font-size: 12pt; line-height: 115%;">John R. Commons seorang pelopor ajaran ekonomi kelembagaan di
Universitas Wisconsin. Commons mencoba untuk melakukan perubahan sosial,
penyempurnaan struktur dan fungsi pendidikan di kampusnya, dan banyak
memberikan sumbangan dalam ekonomi perburuhan. Pandangannya terhadap ekonomi
ortodoks adalah penolakannya pada lingkungan ekonomi yang sempit, statik, dan
mencoba memasukkan segi-segi kejiwaan, sejarah, hukum, sosial dan politik dalam
pembahasannya. Teori harga dalam ekonomi ortodoks hanya berlaku dalam
kondisi-kondisi khusus. Dalam pasar ekonomi ortodoks terjadi pertukaran, tetapi
bukan hubungan pertukaran. Dia membagi tiga macam transaksi dalam pasar, yakni
transaksi pengalihan hak milik kekayaan, transaksi kepemimpinan, dan transaksi
distribusi. Dalam transaksi tersebut, melibatkan aspek-aspek kebiasaan, adat,
hukum dan kejiwaan.<o:p></o:p></span></div>
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<a href="http://www.blogger.com/blogger.g?blogID=3600626824018511994" name="612"></a><span style="font-family: Symbol; font-size: 10pt; line-height: 115%;">·<span style="font-family: 'Times New Roman'; font-size: 7pt; line-height: normal;">
</span></span><span style="background-color: white; font-size: 12pt; line-height: 115%;">Pandangan pemikiran J.A. Hobson
tentang kritiknya terhadap ekonomi ortodok, yaitu ada tiga kelemahan teori
ekonomi ortodoks yang ditemukannya, yakni tidak dapat menyelesaikan masalah
full employment yang dijanjikan teori ekonomi ortodoks, distribusi pendapatan
yang senjang, dan pasar bukanlah ukuran terbaik untuk menentukan ongkos sosial.
Adanya ekonomi normatif dan positif tidak disetujuinya, oleh karena keduanya
mengandung unsur etika, hipotesis tentang timbulnya imperialisme, karena
terjadi under consumption dan over saving di dalam negeri, maka diperlukan
penanaman modal ke daerah-daerah baru. Pengeluaran pemerintah dan pajak dapat
mendorong ekonomi ke arah full employment, dan meningkatkan pendapatan pekerja
dan peningkatan produktivitas. Pembayaran terhadap faktor-faktor produksi dapat
ditentukan atas kebutuhan cukup untuk meningkatkan produktivitas dan dengan
memberikan kelebihan yang tidak produktif. Dengan semakin meratanya pembagian
pendapatan akan mendorong peningkatan produktivitas, meningkatnya konsumsi, dan
akan terhindarlah ekonomi dari resesi.<o:p></o:p></span></div>
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<b><span lang="EN-US" style="background-color: white; font-size: 12pt; line-height: 115%;">Inovasi, Drama Asia
dan Kapitalisme Amerika</span></b><span lang="EN-US" style="background-color: white; font-size: 12pt; line-height: 115%;"><o:p></o:p></span></div>
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<a href="http://www.blogger.com/blogger.g?blogID=3600626824018511994" name="615"></a><a href="http://www.blogger.com/blogger.g?blogID=3600626824018511994" name="614"></a><span style="font-family: Symbol; font-size: 10pt; line-height: 115%;">·<span style="font-family: 'Times New Roman'; font-size: 7pt; line-height: normal;"> </span></span><span style="background-color: white; font-size: 12pt; line-height: 115%;">Pemikiran yang paling menonjol dari Schumpeter tentang pembahasan
ekonomi jangka panjang terlihat dalam analisisnya baik mengenai terjadinya
inovasi komoditi baru, maupun dalam menjelaskan terjadinya siklus-bisnis.
Keseimbangan ekonomi yang statik dan stasioner itu mengalami gangguan dengan
adanya inovasi, namun gangguan itu berusaha mencari keseimbangan baru. Inovasi
akan terhenti kalau kapten industri (wiraswasta) telah terlihat dengan
persoalan-persoalan rutin. Walaupun Schumpeter menggunakan andaian-andaian
ekonomi ortodoks, tetapi dia memasukkan aspek dinamik dengan mengkaji
terjadinya fluktuasi bisnis, di mana terjadi resesi, depresi, recovery, dan
boom. Invensi dan inovasi merupakan kreativitas yang bersifat destruktif.
Penemuan hari ini dapat dihancurkan oleh penemuan esok, tetapi ekonomi tetap
tumbuh.<o:p></o:p></span></div>
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<a href="http://www.blogger.com/blogger.g?blogID=3600626824018511994" name="616"></a><span style="font-family: Symbol; font-size: 10pt; line-height: 115%;">·<span style="font-family: 'Times New Roman'; font-size: 7pt; line-height: normal;"> </span></span><span style="background-color: white; font-size: 12pt; line-height: 115%;">Pemikiran Gunnar Myrdal seorang ekonomi Swedia yang terbesar dewasa ini
tertarik dengan pengkajian sosiologi. Dia mempelajari sebab-sebab terjadinya
kemiskinan di negeri-negeri maju dan yang sedang berkembang. Dalam mengatasi
persoalan-persoalan itu tidak dapat hanya dengan teori-teori ekonomi ortodoks,
oleh karena teori itu terlalu sempit. Perencanaan ekonomi di negeri-negeri yang
sedang berkembang akan mengarahkan pembangunan yang jelas, dan perencanaan itu
meliputi segala aspek, yakni ekonomi, pendidikan, kesehatan, kependudukan, dan
semua sektor. Alat analisisnya seperti yang dilakukan oleh Mitchell, yakni
sebab-musabab yang bersifat kumulatif. Jadi, kekuatan-kekuatan politik,
ekonomi, sosial dan kejiwaan dapat berhimpun menjadi sebab kejadian yang merugikan
atau yang menguntungkan pembangunan.<o:p></o:p></span></div>
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<span style="font-family: Symbol; font-size: 10pt; line-height: 115%;">·<span style="font-family: 'Times New Roman'; font-size: 7pt; line-height: normal;">
</span></span><span style="background-color: white; font-size: 12pt; line-height: 115%;">John Keyneth Galbraith
menjelaskan perkembangan ekonomi kapitalis di AS, yang tidak sesuai dengan
ramalan-ramalan yang bersifat manipulatif dari teori ekonomi ortodoks.
Andaian-andaian ekonomi ortodoks menurut Galbraith ternyata tidak sesuai dengan
kenyataannya. Tidak ada lagi persaingan sempurna, pasar telah dikuasai oleh
perusahaan-perusahaan besar. Perusahaan ini menentukan selera konsumen.
Kekuasaan konsumen telah tidak berarti sehingga timbul dependent-effect pemilik
modal telah terpisah dengan para manajer yang profesional, dan para manajer ini
telah menjadi technostructure masyarakat. Konsumsi masyarakat telah menjadi
tinggi, tetapi sebaliknya terjadi pencemaran lingkungan, dan kualitas
barang-barang swasta tidak dapat diimbangi oleh barang-barang dan jasa publik.
Kekuatan-kekuatan perusahaan besar dikontrol oleh kekuatan pengimbang seperti
kekuatan buruh, pemerintah, dan lembaga-lembaga konsumen. Namun demikian, untuk
menjamin kelanjutan kekuasaan perusahaan- perusahaan ini, mereka meminta
pemerintah untuk menstabilkannya.</span><span style="background-color: white; font-size: 12pt; line-height: 115%;"><o:p></o:p></span></div>
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<b><span style="background-color: white; font-size: 14pt; line-height: 115%;">Sumber</span></b><b><span lang="EN-US" style="background-color: white; font-size: 14pt; line-height: 115%;"> :</span></b><span lang="EN-US" style="background-color: white; font-size: 14pt; line-height: 115%;"> </span><span lang="EN-US" style="background-color: white; font-size: 14pt; line-height: 115%;"><o:p></o:p></span></div>
<div class="MsoNormal" style="text-align: justify;">
<span lang="EN-US" style="background-color: white; font-size: 12pt; line-height: 115%;">Disman, DR.H.,MS. 2000. </span><i><span style="background-color: white; font-size: 12pt; line-height: 115%;">Sejarah Teori-teori
Ekonomi</span></i><span style="background-color: white; font-size: 12pt; line-height: 115%;"> </span><span lang="EN-US" style="background-color: white; font-size: 12pt; line-height: 115%;"><o:p></o:p></span></div>Teuku Bahran Basyiranhttp://www.blogger.com/profile/10525417589204464156noreply@blogger.com0tag:blogger.com,1999:blog-3600626824018511994.post-33242219411309403892012-06-07T15:33:00.001+02:002018-06-26T16:49:05.800+02:00Perkembangan Sistem Ekonomi Syariah di Eropa: Contoh Kasus di Inggris<!-- Global site tag (gtag.js) - Google Analytics -->
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<span style="font-family: Times, 'Times New Roman', serif; font-size: medium;"><span style="line-height: 21px;"><b><i><u>Oleh:</u> Teuku Bahran Basyiran</i></b></span></span></div>
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<span style="font-size: medium;"><span style="line-height: 21px;"><b><br /></b></span></span></div>
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<span lang="EN-US" style="font-size: 12pt; line-height: 115%;">Saat ini
telah masuk sistem perekonomian yg baru di Negara-negara Eropa, yaitu sistem
ekonomi syariah yang dimulai pada tahun 2000-an dan terus berkembang secara
positif sampai sekarang. Ini menjadi sistem alternative pada makin turunnya
reputasi kapitalis di Negara-negara Eropa. Pemerintah di Negara-negara tersebut
sangat mendukung segala program dan upaya yang dilakukan oleh pihak-pihak
ekonomi syariah dikarenakan jelasnya tujuan pada sistem ini dalam menangani
permasalahan-permasalahan yang berkaitan erat dengan ekonomi seperti sosial,
yang baurannya merupakan rakyat lemah.<o:p></o:p></span></div>
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<span lang="EN-US" style="font-size: 12pt; line-height: 115%;">Sistem
ekonomi syariah terus berkembang dengan munculnya satu-per-satu lembaga-lembaga
syariah. </span><span style="font-size: 12pt; line-height: 115%;">Perbankan syariah di Eropa telah berdiri sejak </span><span lang="EN-US" style="font-size: 12pt; line-height: 115%;">2004</span><span style="font-size: 12pt; line-height: 115%;"> dan memiliki 50 ribu nasabah menunjukkan besarnya
minat masyarakat terhadap industri tersebut. Lima bank murni syariah kini
beroperasi di London termasuk lembaga multinasional seperti HSBC yang menjadi
pemain kunci sektor perbankan syariah. London pun menjadi pintu masuk menuju
Eropa.</span><span lang="EN-US" style="font-size: 12pt; line-height: 115%;"><o:p></o:p></span></div>
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<span style="font-size: 12pt; line-height: 115%;">Bank </span><span lang="EN-US" style="font-size: 12pt; line-height: 115%;">yang</span><span style="font-size: 12pt; line-height: 115%;"> merupakan bank syariah pertama di Ero</span><span lang="EN-US" style="font-size: 12pt; line-height: 115%;">pa adalah </span><span style="font-size: 12pt; line-height: 115%;">IBB (The Islamic Bank of Britain</span><span lang="EN-US" style="font-size: 12pt; line-height: 115%;">)</span><span style="font-size: 12pt; line-height: 115%;"> atau </span><span lang="EN-US" style="font-size: 12pt; line-height: 115%;">B</span><span style="font-size: 12pt; line-height: 115%;">ank Islam </span><span lang="EN-US" style="font-size: 12pt; line-height: 115%;">Britania,</span><span lang="EN-US" style="font-size: 12pt; line-height: 115%;"> </span><span lang="EN-US" style="font-size: 12pt; line-height: 115%;">didirikan pada tahun</span><span style="font-size: 12pt; line-height: 115%;"> 2004</span><span lang="EN-US" style="font-size: 12pt; line-height: 115%;"> di
Inggris, yang menandakan dimulainya atmosfir sistem ekonomi syariah di Eropa.</span><span lang="EN-US" style="font-size: 12pt; line-height: 115%;">
</span><span lang="EN-US" style="font-size: 12pt; line-height: 115%;">Bank ini m</span><span style="font-size: 12pt; line-height: 115%;">enunjukan
meski berada di pasar masyarakat menengah, bank syariah masih bisa bersaing
dengan bisnis bank konvensional. Bank tersebut nyata-nyata berani
menerapkan margin kompetitif untuk produk deposito berjangka, bahkan
mengalahkan sejumlah bank konvensional besar di negara itu</span><span lang="EN-US" style="font-size: 12pt; line-height: 115%;">.<o:p></o:p></span></div>
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<span lang="EN-US" style="font-family: Calibri, sans-serif;">Sebagai contoh, kita lihat di negara Inggris, yang merupakan negara di
Eropa yang pertama sekali menerapkan sistem ekonomi syariah. Pada dasarnya, Inggris</span><span style="font-family: Calibri, sans-serif;"> bukanlah
negara Muslim. Namun, negeri Ratu Elizabeth itu tercatat sebagai negara yang
paling maju dalam hal ekonomi syariah. Sebuah studi mencatat</span><span lang="EN-US" style="font-family: Calibri, sans-serif;">, Inggris </span><span style="font-family: Calibri, sans-serif;">sebagai
negara yang memiliki bank terbanyak bagi umat muslim di antara negara Barat
lainnya. Aset perbankan syariah yang mencapai 18 miliar dolar AS (12 miliar
pounds) melebihi aset bank syariah seperti di Pakistan, Bangladesh, Turki, dan
Mesir. Hal tersebut pun didukung oleh 55 universitas dan lembaga pendidikan
lainnya di </span><span lang="EN-US" style="font-family: Calibri, sans-serif;">Inggris</span><span style="font-family: Calibri, sans-serif;"> yang memiliki pendidikan keuangan
syariah. Jumlah tersebut lebih banyak dibanding negara-negara lainnya.</span><span lang="EN-US" style="font-family: Calibri, sans-serif;"> Dan p</span><span style="font-family: Calibri, sans-serif;">ara
ahli ekonomi syariah dari beberapa universitas di negara </span><span lang="EN-US" style="font-family: Calibri, sans-serif;">tersebut</span><span style="font-family: Calibri, sans-serif;"> pun didatangkan untuk menjadi pembicara dalam seminar maupun
pelatihan</span><span lang="EN-US" style="font-family: Calibri, sans-serif;"> di berbagai belahan dunia.<o:p></o:p></span></div>
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<span lang="EN-US" style="font-family: Calibri, sans-serif;">M</span><span style="font-family: Calibri, sans-serif;">eski
ekonomi syariah tak berasal dari Negara-negara Eropa, tapi keuangan syariah
telah menemukan tempatnya di Negara-negara Eropa.</span><span lang="EN-US" style="font-family: Calibri, sans-serif;"> Tercatat, banyak negara-negara besar dunia di Eropa (selain Inggris)
telah memakai sistem ini, seperti Perancis, Jerman, Italia.<o:p></o:p></span></div>
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<span lang="EN-US" style="font-family: Calibri, sans-serif;"></span><br />
<a name='more'></a><span lang="EN-US" style="font-family: Calibri, sans-serif;"><br /></span></div>
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<span lang="EN-US" style="font-family: Calibri, sans-serif;"><br /></span></div>
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<b><span lang="EN-US" style="font-size: 14pt; line-height: 115%;">Peranan Ekonomi Syariah terhadap Sistem Perekonomian di Eropa<o:p></o:p></span></b></div>
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<b><span lang="EN-US" style="font-size: 14pt; line-height: 115%;"><br /></span></b></div>
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<span lang="EN-US" style="font-size: 12pt; line-height: 115%;">Di tengah
gonjang-ganjing perekonomian kapitalis di Negara-negara Eropa yang memang sudah
menjadi dasar sistem perekonomian selama berabad-abad, munculnya ekonomi
syariah akan menjadi ‘obat’ pada tubuh sistem ekonomi di Negara tersebut. Kalau
sistem kapitalis yang menikmati jalannya sistem pasar adalah orang yang berada
di atas, ekonomi syariah lebih berpusat pada kepentingan rakyat, sehingga di
dalam sistem ini, rakyat kecil pun bisa ‘bermain’ di dunia ekonomi pasar. Hal
ini sangat membantu krisis sosial yang semakin marak terjadi di Negara-negara
Eropa. </span><span style="font-size: 12pt; line-height: 115%;">T</span><span lang="EN-US" style="font-size: 12pt; line-height: 115%;">id</span><span style="font-size: 12pt; line-height: 115%;">ak ada sektor yang kebal terhadap krisis
keuangan global, namun keuangan syariah telah menunjukkan daya tahan luar
bisaa. Keuangan syariah dapat bertahan dari krisis kredit dan resesi lebih baik
dari bank lainnya karena adanya larangan investasi di asset yang beresiko,
seperti halnya sub-prime mortgages.</span><span lang="EN-US" style="font-size: 12pt; line-height: 115%;"><o:p></o:p></span></div>
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<span style="font-family: Calibri, sans-serif;">Salah satu
solusi penting yang harus diperhatikan pemerintahan</span><span lang="EN-US" style="font-family: Calibri, sans-serif;"> Negara-negara di dunia</span><span style="font-family: Calibri, sans-serif;"> dalam me-recovery ekonomi adalah penerapan ekonomi syariah.
Ekonomi syariah memiliki komitmen yang kuat pada pengentasan kemiskinan,
penegakan keadilan pertumbuhan ekonomi, penghapusan riba, dan pelarangan
spekulasi mata uang sehingga menciptakan stabilitas perekonomian.</span><span style="font-family: Calibri, sans-serif;"> </span><span style="font-family: Calibri, sans-serif;">Ekonomi
syariah yang menekankan keadilan, mengajarkan konsep yang unggul dalam
menghadapi gejolak moneter dibanding sistem konvensional. Fakta ini telah
diakui oleh banyak pakar ekonomi global, seperti Rodney Shakespeare (United
Kingdom), Volker Nienhaus (Jerman), d</span><span lang="EN-US" style="font-family: Calibri, sans-serif;">an </span><span style="font-family: Calibri, sans-serif;">s</span><span lang="EN-US" style="font-family: Calibri, sans-serif;">e</span><span style="font-family: Calibri, sans-serif;">b</span><span lang="EN-US" style="font-family: Calibri, sans-serif;">againya</span><span style="font-family: Calibri, sans-serif;">.<o:p></o:p></span></div>
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<span lang="EN-US" style="font-family: Calibri, sans-serif;">Dan</span><span style="font-family: Calibri, sans-serif;">
pemerintah </span><span lang="EN-US" style="font-family: Calibri, sans-serif;">juga </span><span style="font-family: Calibri, sans-serif;">perlu memberikan perhatian besar kepada </span><a href="http://zonaekis.com/indonesia-harus-serius-terapkan-sistem-ekonomi-syariah/" title="Lihat juga artikel Indonesia Harus Serius Terapkan Sistem Ekonomi Syariah"><span style="color: windowtext; font-family: Calibri, sans-serif; text-decoration: none;">sistem ekonomi Islam</span></a><span style="font-family: Calibri, sans-serif;"> yang telah
terbukti ampuh dan lebih resisten di masa krisis. Sistem ekonomi Islam yang
diwakili lembaga perbankan syariah telah menunjukkan ketangguhannya bisa
bertahan karena ia menggunakan sistem </span><span lang="EN-US" style="font-family: Calibri, sans-serif;">bagi </span><span style="font-family: Calibri, sans-serif;">hasil
sehingga tidak mengalami negatif <i>spread</i>
sebagaimana bank-bank konvensional. Bahkan perbankan syariah semakin berkembang
di masa-masa yang sangat sulit tersebut.</span><span lang="EN-US" style="font-family: Calibri, sans-serif;"><o:p></o:p></span></div>
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<br /></div>
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<b><span lang="EN-US" style="font-size: 14pt; line-height: 115%;"><br /></span></b></div>
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<b><span lang="EN-US" style="font-size: 14pt; line-height: 115%;">Realita Kekuatan Sistem Ekonomi Syariah <i>versus</i> Sistem Kapitalisme di Eropa<o:p></o:p></span></b></div>
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<span lang="EN-US" style="font-size: 12pt; line-height: 115%;"><br /></span></div>
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<span lang="EN-US" style="font-size: 12pt; line-height: 115%;">Di Negara-negara Eropa memang sangat dikenal sebagai
Negara kelahiran kapitalis, yang perekonomian berpusat pada pasar. Kapitalisme
lahir setelah adanya revolusi industry di Negara-negara Eropa, yaitu peralihan
dari tenaga manusia ke tenaga mesin, yang terus menghasilkan teknologi baru dan
meningkatkan aktivitas serta daya tarik pasar dengan hadirnya era industry
tersebut. Terus berlanjut pada perkembangan sistem ekonomi kapitalisme di
Negara Britania tersebut sampai saat ini, yang telah sedikit berubah ke arah
kapitalisme modern dengan adanya sedikit intervensi pemerintah.<o:p></o:p></span></div>
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<span style="font-size: 12pt; line-height: 115%;">Kapitalisme
merupakan paham klasik yang terus berkembang dan telah mengakar di dunia,
meskipun paham ini telah banyak memberikan dampak yang buruk dengan prinsipnya
yang penuh akan individualities. Namun tak dapat di pungkiri pula paham ini
juga memiliki dampak positif meskipun sedikit contoh meningkatkan semangat untuk
bekerja</span><span lang="EN-US" style="font-size: 12pt; line-height: 115%;">. Hal ini merupakan masalah serius
public dunia atas kepercayaannya terhadap sistem yang sangat awal ini.
Sehingga, para ekonom dunia terus mencari-cari sistem yang paling ideal untuk
digunakan dan diterapkan oleh sebuah Negara untuk mencapai kemakmuran yang
agregat dengan ketimpangan sosial yang rendah.<o:p></o:p></span></div>
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<span lang="EN-US" style="font-size: 12pt; line-height: 115%;">Di tengah isu tersebut, hadir sistem ekonomi syariah
yang berhasil mengobati kesakitan ekonomi di Negara kapitalis secara perlahan.
Secara umum dapat dikatakan sistem ini berpusat pada tujuan pengentasan
kemiskinan. Di mana ekonomi syariah </span><span style="font-size: 12pt; line-height: 115%;">memberikan kesejahteraan bagi seluruh masyarakat, memberikan
rasa adil, kebersamaan dan kekeluargaan serta mampu memberikan kesempatan
seluas-luasnya kepada setiap pelaku usaha</span><span lang="EN-US" style="font-size: 12pt; line-height: 115%;">. Sehingga dalam hal ini, dapat mengatasi masalah ketimpangan sosial
yang tinggi. Berbeda dengan kapitalis, di mana hak milik pribadi yang tak
terbatas atas segala material dan berbentuk laba pribadi, sangat jelas dengan
semobyannya, “Segala sesuatu untuk diri sendiri, peduli apa dengan orang lain”.<o:p></o:p></span></div>
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<span lang="EN-US" style="font-size: 12pt; line-height: 115%;">Dengan melihat studi kasus di Negara-negara Eropa yang
menyatakan bahwa akhir-akhir ini terjadi aksi dan unjuk rasa yang meluas oleh
rakyatnya atas tuntutan problema sosial seperti besarnya angka pengangguran,
ketimpangan sosial yang tinggi, monopoli perusahaan yang merugikan rakyat, dan
banyak lagi. Sehingga dalam kasus ini, jelaslah posisi sistem kapitalis sudah
tidak aman. Dikuatkan oleh fakta yang menggambarkan Amerika Serikat dan
Negara-negara Eropa yang notabene
merupakan penganut kapitalis mengalami krisis ekonomi besar-besaran. <o:p></o:p></span></div>
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<span lang="EN-US" style="font-size: 12pt; line-height: 115%;">Jadi, negara Negara-negara Eropa yang sejak lama memakai sistem
kapitalis dan sampai saat sekarang, mulai menerapkan ekonomi syariah yang juga telah diakui </span><span style="font-size: 12pt; line-height: 115%;">secara resmi</span><span lang="EN-US" style="font-size: 12pt; line-height: 115%;"> oleh</span><span style="font-size: 12pt; line-height: 115%;"> Bank Dunia</span><span style="font-size: 12pt; line-height: 115%;"> </span><span style="font-size: 12pt; line-height: 115%;">dan menjadikannya sebagai sebuah area
prioritas dalam program </span><a href="http://zonaekis.com/sektor-keuangan-syariah-perlu-lebih-banyak-regulasi/" title="Lihat juga artikel Sektor Keuangan Syariah Perlu Lebih Banyak Regulasi "><span style="color: windowtext; font-size: 12pt; line-height: 115%; text-decoration: none;">sektor</span></a><span style="font-size: 12pt; line-height: 115%;">
</span><a href="http://zonaekis.com/arab-saudi-bahas-model-sukses-keuangan-syariah-global/" title="Lihat juga artikel Arab Saudi Bahas Model Sukses Keuangan Syariah Global"><span style="color: windowtext; font-size: 12pt; line-height: 115%; text-decoration: none;">keuangan</span></a><span style="font-size: 12pt; line-height: 115%;">.</span><span style="font-size: 12pt; line-height: 115%;"> <span lang="EN-US">Penerapan
ini diutamakan oleh pemerintah Negara-negara Eropa untuk mengatasi problema
sosial di negaranya.<o:p></o:p></span></span></div>
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<span style="font-size: 12pt; line-height: 115%;"><span lang="EN-US"><br /></span></span></div>
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<span style="font-size: 12pt; line-height: 115%;"><span lang="EN-US"><br /></span></span></div>Teuku Bahran Basyiranhttp://www.blogger.com/profile/10525417589204464156noreply@blogger.com2tag:blogger.com,1999:blog-3600626824018511994.post-51897517690654009632012-06-07T15:15:00.004+02:002012-06-07T15:15:56.326+02:00Bab 8: Analisis Ekonomi Struktur Keuangan<br />
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<b><span lang="EN-US" style="font-size: 14.0pt; mso-bidi-font-size: 11.0pt;">Biaya Transaksi<o:p></o:p></span></b></div>
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<b><span lang="EN-US" style="font-size: 14.0pt; mso-bidi-font-size: 11.0pt;"><br /></span></b></div>
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<span lang="EN-US" style="font-size: 12.0pt; mso-bidi-font-size: 11.0pt;"> Biaya transaksi
merupakan masalah besar dalam pasar keuangan, salah satu contoh berikut dapat memperjelas
hal tersebut. Biaya transaksi menahan banyak penabung dan peminjam kecil dari
keterlibatan langsung dengan pasar keuangan . Perantara keuangan mengambil
keuntungan dari skala ekonomis dan lebih mampu untuk mengembangkan keahlian
untuk menurunkan biaya transaksi, dengan demikian memungkinkan penabung dan
peminjam untuk mendapatkan keuntungan dari keberadaan pasar keuangan.<o:p></o:p></span></div>
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<b><span lang="EN-US" style="font-size: 12.0pt; mso-bidi-font-size: 11.0pt;">Bagaimana Biaya Transaksi
Mempengaruhi Struktur Keuangan<o:p></o:p></span></b></div>
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<span lang="EN-US" style="font-size: 12.0pt; mso-bidi-font-size: 11.0pt;"> Jika anda mempunyai
uang $5.000 yang ingin di investasikan
di pasar saham. Uang tersebut dapat anda belikan sejumlah kecil saham. Meskipun
jika anda menggunakan perdagangan online, pembelian anda akan sedemikian kecil
sehingga komisi perantara (brokerage) untuk membeli saham yang anda pilih akan
merupakan presentase yang besar dari harga beli saham. Jika anda membeli
obligasi, masalah menjadi akan lebih buruk karena di nominasi terkecil untuk
beberapa obligasi yang mungkin ingin anda belin $10.000 dan tidak punya sebanyak
itu untuk berinvestasi. Anda akan kecewa karena anda akan tidak dapat
menggunakan pasar keuangan untuk memperoleh imbal hasil (return) atas tabungan
anda. Hal ini adalah fakta kehidupan bagi sebagian besar dari kita. Hanya
sekitar separuh dari rumah tangga Amerika Serikat memilki surat berharga (sekuritas).<o:p></o:p></span></div>
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<span lang="EN-US" style="font-size: 12.0pt; mso-bidi-font-size: 11.0pt;"> Anda juga menghadapi masalah
lain akibat biaya transaksi. Oleh karena Anda hanya memiliki dana kecil yang
tersedia, anda hanya dapat membuat sejumlah investasi yang terbatas karena
sejumlah besar transaksi-transaksi kecil akan menghasilkan biaya transaksi yang
sangat tinggi. Dengan demikian, Anda harus menaruh semua telur dalam satu
keranjang, dan ketidakmampuan anda untuk melakukan pembedaan akan membatasi
anda denfan risiko yang banyak.<o:p></o:p></span></div>
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<b><span lang="EN-US" style="font-size: 12.0pt; mso-bidi-font-size: 11.0pt;">Bagaimana Perantara Keuangan
Mengurangi Biaya Transaksi<o:p></o:p></span></b></div>
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<!--[if !supportLists]--><b><span lang="EN-US" style="font-size: 12.0pt; mso-bidi-font-family: Calibri; mso-bidi-font-size: 11.0pt; mso-bidi-theme-font: minor-latin;">1.<span style="font-size: 7pt; font-weight: normal;">
</span></span></b><!--[endif]--><b><span lang="EN-US" style="font-size: 12.0pt; mso-bidi-font-size: 11.0pt;">Skala Ekonomis</span></b><span lang="EN-US" style="font-size: 12.0pt; mso-bidi-font-size: 11.0pt;"><o:p></o:p></span></div>
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<span lang="EN-US" style="font-size: 12.0pt; mso-bidi-font-size: 11.0pt;">Satu solusi untuk persoalan biaya transaksi yang tinggi adalah
menggabungkan dana dri banyak investor secara bersama sehingga dapat mengambil
manfaat dari skala ekonomis (economies of scale), yaitu penurunan biaya
transaksi per dollar investasi sejalan dengan ukuran (skala) transaksi. Skala
ekonomi ada karena total biaya melkuakan transaksi dalam pasar keuangan hanya
meningkatkan sdikit sejalan dengan peningkatan ukuran transaksi.<o:p></o:p></span></div>
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<span lang="EN-US" style="font-size: 12.0pt; mso-bidi-font-size: 11.0pt;"> Contoh yang paling
jelas mengenai perantara keungan yang muncul karen skala ekonomis adalah reksa
dana(mutual fund). Reksa dana adalah perantara keungan yang menjual saham
kepada individu dan kemudian menginvestasikan keuntungannya dalam obligasi atau
saham.<o:p></o:p></span></div>
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<span lang="EN-US" style="font-size: 12.0pt; mso-bidi-font-size: 11.0pt;"> Skala ekonomis juga
penting dalam menurunkan biaya lain,sperti tekhnologi computer yang di perlukan
oleh lembaga keungan untuk menyelesaikan tugas-tugas mereka .<o:p></o:p></span></div>
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<!--[if !supportLists]--><b><span lang="EN-US" style="font-size: 12.0pt; mso-bidi-font-family: Calibri; mso-bidi-font-size: 11.0pt; mso-bidi-theme-font: minor-latin;">2.<span style="font-size: 7pt; font-weight: normal;">
</span></span></b><!--[endif]--><b><span lang="EN-US" style="font-size: 12.0pt; mso-bidi-font-size: 11.0pt;">Keahlian<o:p></o:p></span></b></div>
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<span lang="EN-US" style="font-size: 12.0pt; mso-bidi-font-size: 11.0pt;">Perantara keuangan juga dapat mengembangkan keahlian yang lebih baik
untuk menurunkan biaya transaksi. Keahlian mereka dalam tekhnologi computer memungkinkan mereka
untuk menawarkan layanan nasabah.<o:p></o:p></span></div>
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<span lang="EN-US" style="font-size: 12.0pt; mso-bidi-font-size: 11.0pt;"> Hasil penting dari
biaya transaksi perantara keungan yang rendah adalah kemampuannya untuk
menyediakan nasabahnya dengan jasa likuiditas, yaiut jasa yang memudahkan
nasabah untuk melakukan transaksi. <o:p></o:p></span></div>
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<span lang="EN-US" style="font-size: 12.0pt; mso-bidi-font-size: 11.0pt;"><br /></span></div>
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<b><span lang="EN-US" style="font-size: 14.0pt; mso-bidi-font-size: 11.0pt;">Bagaimana Moral Hazard
Memengaruhi Struktur Keuangan di Pasar Utang<o:p></o:p></span></b></div>
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<b><span lang="EN-US" style="font-size: 14.0pt; mso-bidi-font-size: 11.0pt;"><br /></span></b></div>
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<span lang="EN-US" style="font-size: 12.0pt; mso-bidi-font-size: 11.0pt;"> Kontrak utang
mensyaratkan peminjam untuk membayar dalam jumlah yang tetap dan membiarkan
mereka menyimpan keuntungan berapa pun di atas jumlah ini, peminjam mempunyai
insentif untuk mengambil proyek-proyek investasi yang lebih berisiko daripada
yang diinginkan pemberi pinjaman.<o:p></o:p></span></div>
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<b><span lang="EN-US" style="font-size: 12.0pt; mso-bidi-font-size: 11.0pt;">Alat untuk Membantu Menyelesaikan
Moral Hazard dalam Kontrak Utang<o:p></o:p></span></b></div>
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<!--[if !supportLists]--><b><span lang="EN-US" style="font-size: 12.0pt; mso-bidi-font-family: Calibri; mso-bidi-font-size: 11.0pt; mso-bidi-theme-font: minor-latin;">1.<span style="font-size: 7pt; font-weight: normal;">
</span></span></b><!--[endif]--><b><span lang="EN-US" style="font-size: 12.0pt; mso-bidi-font-size: 11.0pt;">Kekayaan Bersih
dan Jaminan<o:p></o:p></span></b></div>
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<span lang="EN-US" style="font-size: 12.0pt; mso-bidi-font-size: 11.0pt;">Salah satu cara untuk
menjelaskan solusi bahwa kekayaan bersih yang tinggi dan jaminan memberikan
masalah moral hazard adalah mengatakan bahwa kontrak utang merupakan
Incentive-compatible, yaitu incentive yang menyelaraskan incentive peminjam
dengan insentive pemberi pinjaman. Semakin besar kekayaan bersih peminjam dan
jaminan yang dijaminkan, semakin besar insentive peminjam berprilaku dengan
cara yang diharapkan dan diinginkan pemberi pinjaman, semakin kecil masalah
moral hazard dalam kontrak utang, dan semakin mudah bagi perusahaan dan rumah
tangga untuk meminjam <o:p></o:p></span></div>
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<br /></div>
<div class="MsoListParagraph" style="margin-left: 14.2pt; mso-add-space: auto; mso-list: l2 level1 lfo1; text-indent: -14.7pt;">
<!--[if !supportLists]--><b><span lang="EN-US" style="font-size: 12.0pt; mso-bidi-font-family: Calibri; mso-bidi-font-size: 11.0pt; mso-bidi-theme-font: minor-latin;">2.<span style="font-size: 7pt; font-weight: normal;">
</span></span></b><!--[endif]--><b><span lang="EN-US" style="font-size: 12.0pt; mso-bidi-font-size: 11.0pt;">Pemantauan dan
Pelaksanaan Kontrak Restriktif<o:p></o:p></span></b></div>
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<span lang="EN-US" style="font-size: 12.0pt; mso-bidi-font-size: 11.0pt;">Kontrak restriktif ditujukan
untuk mengurangi moral hazard dengan cara mengesampingkan parilaku yang tidak
diinginkan atau dengan mendorong perilaku yang diinginkan. Terdapat empat jenis
kontrak yang restriktif yang dapat mencapai tujuan tersebut:<o:p></o:p></span></div>
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<!--[if !supportLists]--><span lang="EN-US" style="font-family: Symbol; font-size: 12.0pt; line-height: 150%; mso-bidi-font-family: Symbol; mso-bidi-font-size: 11.0pt; mso-fareast-font-family: Symbol;">·<span style="font-family: 'Times New Roman'; font-size: 7pt; line-height: normal;">
</span></span><!--[endif]--><span lang="EN-US" style="font-size: 12.0pt; line-height: 150%; mso-bidi-font-size: 11.0pt;">Kontrak yang mengurangi perilaku
yang tidak diinginkan. <o:p></o:p></span></div>
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<span lang="EN-US" style="font-size: 12.0pt; line-height: 150%; mso-bidi-font-size: 11.0pt;">Kontrak yang dirancang untuk mengurangi moral hazard
dengan mencegahpeminjam dari keterlibatannya dalam perilaku yang tidak
diinginkan. Beberapa kontrak mengatur bahwa peminjam dapat digunakan hanya
untuk menandai aktivitas tertentu, kontrak lainnya membatasi perusahaan
peminjam dan keterlibatannya dalam kegiatan usaha yang berisiko.<o:p></o:p></span></div>
<div class="MsoListParagraphCxSpMiddle" style="line-height: 150%; margin-bottom: .0001pt; margin-bottom: 0cm; margin-left: 14.2pt; margin-right: 0cm; margin-top: 0cm; mso-add-space: auto; mso-list: l0 level1 lfo2; text-indent: -14.7pt;">
<!--[if !supportLists]--><span lang="EN-US" style="font-family: Symbol; font-size: 12.0pt; line-height: 150%; mso-bidi-font-family: Symbol; mso-bidi-font-size: 11.0pt; mso-fareast-font-family: Symbol;">·<span style="font-family: 'Times New Roman'; font-size: 7pt; line-height: normal;">
</span></span><!--[endif]--><span lang="EN-US" style="font-size: 12.0pt; line-height: 150%; mso-bidi-font-size: 11.0pt;">Kontrak untuk mendorong perilaku
yang diinginkan. <o:p></o:p></span></div>
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<span lang="EN-US" style="font-size: 12.0pt; line-height: 150%; mso-bidi-font-size: 11.0pt;">Kontrak yang restriktif dapat mendorong peminjam untuk
terlibat dalam aktivitasyang dapat lebih memungkinkan bahwa pinjaman tersebut
akan dibayarkan. Kontrak yang restriktif ini pada khususnya menjelaskan bahwa
perusahaan harus mempertahankan jumlah kepemilikan minimum atas aset tertentu
relatif terhadap ukuran perusahaan.<o:p></o:p></span></div>
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<!--[if !supportLists]--><span lang="EN-US" style="font-family: Symbol; font-size: 12.0pt; line-height: 150%; mso-bidi-font-family: Symbol; mso-bidi-font-size: 11.0pt; mso-fareast-font-family: Symbol;">·<span style="font-family: 'Times New Roman'; font-size: 7pt; line-height: normal;">
</span></span><!--[endif]--><span lang="EN-US" style="font-size: 12.0pt; line-height: 150%; mso-bidi-font-size: 11.0pt;">Kontrak untuk mempertahankan agar
jaminan tetap bernilai. <o:p></o:p></span></div>
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<span lang="EN-US" style="font-size: 12.0pt; line-height: 150%; mso-bidi-font-size: 11.0pt;">Ini merupakan jenis kontrak yang biasa paling sering
ditemukan. Kontrak pinjaman mobil, misalnya, mengharuskan pemilik untuk
mempetahankan sejumlah jaminan minimum dan asuransi kehialangan dan mencegah
penjualan mobil tersebut kecuali pinjaman sudah dilunasi. Demikian pula
penerima KPR harus mempunyai cukup asuransi atas rumahnya dan membayar KPR
apabila property tersebut dijual.<o:p></o:p></span></div>
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<!--[if !supportLists]--><span lang="EN-US" style="font-family: Symbol; font-size: 12.0pt; line-height: 150%; mso-bidi-font-family: Symbol; mso-bidi-font-size: 11.0pt; mso-fareast-font-family: Symbol;">·<span style="font-family: 'Times New Roman'; font-size: 7pt; line-height: normal;">
</span></span><!--[endif]--><span lang="EN-US" style="font-size: 12.0pt; line-height: 150%; mso-bidi-font-size: 11.0pt;">Kontrak untuk memberikan informasi.
<o:p></o:p></span></div>
<div class="MsoListParagraphCxSpLast" style="line-height: 150%; margin-bottom: .0001pt; margin-bottom: 0cm; margin-left: 14.2pt; margin-right: 0cm; margin-top: 0cm; mso-add-space: auto;">
<span lang="EN-US" style="font-size: 12.0pt; line-height: 150%; mso-bidi-font-size: 11.0pt;">Kontrak yang restriktif juga mengharuskan perusahaan
peminjam untuk menyediakan informasi mengenai kegiatannya secara berkala dalam
bentuk laporan akuntasi dan laba triwulan, sehingga memudahkna pemberi pinjaman
memantau perusahaan dan mengurangi moral hazard. Jenis kontrak ini juga dapat
mengatur bahwa pemberi pinjaman mempunyai hak untuk mengaudit dan memeriksa
pembukuan perusahaan kapan saja.<o:p></o:p></span></div>
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<div class="MsoListParagraph" style="margin-left: 14.2pt; mso-add-space: auto; mso-list: l2 level1 lfo1; text-indent: -14.7pt;">
<!--[if !supportLists]--><b><span lang="EN-US" style="font-size: 12.0pt; mso-bidi-font-family: Calibri; mso-bidi-font-size: 11.0pt; mso-bidi-theme-font: minor-latin;">3.<span style="font-size: 7pt; font-weight: normal;">
</span></span></b><!--[endif]--><b><span lang="EN-US" style="font-size: 12.0pt; mso-bidi-font-size: 11.0pt;">Perantaraan
Keuangan<o:p></o:p></span></b></div>
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<span lang="EN-US" style="font-size: 12.0pt; mso-bidi-font-size: 11.0pt;">Perantara keuangan mempunyai
kemampuan untuk menghindari masalah free-rider terutama selama mereka melakukan
pinjaman individu. Pinjaman individu tidak diperdagangkan, sehingga tak
seorangpun yang dapat menjadi free-rider pada pemantauan dan pelaksanaan
kontrak restriktif. Dengan demikian, perantara yang melakukan pinjaman menerima
keuntungan dari pemantauan dan pelaksanaan dan akan bekerja untuk mengurangi
masalah moral hazard yang melekat dalam kontrak utang. <o:p></o:p></span></div>
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<span lang="EN-US" style="font-size: 12.0pt; mso-bidi-font-size: 11.0pt;"><br /></span></div>
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<b><span lang="EN-US" style="font-size: 14.0pt; mso-bidi-font-size: 11.0pt;">Faktor-faktor yang
Menyebabkan Krisis Keuangan<o:p></o:p></span></b></div>
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<b><span lang="EN-US" style="font-size: 14.0pt; mso-bidi-font-size: 11.0pt;"><br /></span></b></div>
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<span lang="EN-US" style="font-size: 12.0pt; mso-bidi-font-size: 11.0pt;"> Untuk memahami
terjadinya krisis perbankan dan keuangan
dan bagaimana krisis tersebut menyebabkan kontraksi terhadap kegiatan ekonomi,
perlu diteliti faktor-faktor yang menyebabkannya. Ada lima kategori faktor yang
dapat memicu krisis keuangan: Kenaikan suku bunga, Peningkatan ketidakpastian,
pasar aset memengaruhi neraca, masalah-masalah dalam sektor perbankan, dan
ketidakseimbangan fiskal pemerintah.<o:p></o:p></span></div>
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<b><span lang="EN-US" style="font-size: 12.0pt; mso-bidi-font-size: 11.0pt;">Kenaikan Suku Bunga<o:p></o:p></span></b></div>
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<span lang="EN-US" style="font-size: 12.0pt; mso-bidi-font-size: 11.0pt;">Jika suku bunga pasar
meningkat karena peningkatan permintaan kredit atau karena penurunan jumlah
uang beredar, risiko kredit yang baik kurang berminat untuk meminjam sedangkan
risiko kredit yang buruk masih berkeinginan untuk meminjam.. Karena adanya
peningkatan dalam <i>adverse selection</i>
yang dihasilkan, pemberi pinjaman tidak berkeinginan untuk member pinjaman.
Penurunan pinjaman secara substansial akan mengakibatkan penurunan substansial
pada investasi dan kegiatan ekonomi agregat.<o:p></o:p></span></div>
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<b><span lang="EN-US" style="font-size: 12.0pt; mso-bidi-font-size: 11.0pt;">Peningkatan Ketidakpastian<o:p></o:p></span></b></div>
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<span lang="EN-US" style="font-size: 12.0pt; mso-bidi-font-size: 11.0pt;">Peningkatan ketidakpastian
yang dramatis di pasar keuangan, kemunkinan akibat kegagalan lembaga keuangan
dan non keuangan yang utama, resesi, atau jatuhnya pasar saham, menyebabkan
pemberi pinjaman semakin sulit untuk memilh risiko-risiko kredit yang baik dari
yang buruk. Ketidak mampuan untuk menyelesaikan masalah adverse selection dapat
membuat pemberi pinjaman tidak berkeinginan untuk member pinjaman, sehingga
pinjaman, investasi, dan kegiatan ekonomi agregat akan mengalami penurunan.<o:p></o:p></span></div>
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<b><span lang="EN-US" style="font-size: 12.0pt; mso-bidi-font-size: 11.0pt;">Dampak Pasar Aset terhadap Neraca<o:p></o:p></span></b></div>
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<span lang="EN-US" style="font-size: 12.0pt; mso-bidi-font-size: 11.0pt;">Kondisi neraca perusahaan
berimplikasi penting bagi kesulitan masalah informasi asimetris dalam sistim
keuangan. Penurunan yang tajam pada pasar saham merupakan satu factor yang
dapat menyebabkan terpuruknya neraca perusahaan, sehingga berakibat
meningkatkan masalah adverse selection dan moral hazard di pasar keuangan dan
menyulut krisis keuangan.<o:p></o:p></span></div>
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<b><span lang="EN-US" style="font-size: 12.0pt; mso-bidi-font-size: 11.0pt;">Permasalahan dalam Sektor Perbankan<o:p></o:p></span></b></div>
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<span lang="EN-US" style="font-size: 12.0pt; mso-bidi-font-size: 11.0pt;">Kondisi neraca bank
berdampak penting bagi pemberian pinjaman bank. Jika bank mengalami pemburukan
neraca bank yang cukup tajam, bank akan mulai gagal, dan kekhawatiran menyebar
dari satu bank ke banklain, menyebabkan bahakan bank-bank sehat kolaps.<o:p></o:p></span></div>
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<span lang="EN-US" style="font-size: 12.0pt; mso-bidi-font-size: 11.0pt;">Penurunan pinjaman bank
selama krisis keuangan menurunkan pasokan dana yang tersedia bagi peminjam,
yang menyebabkan suku bunga tinggi. Hasil dari kegagalan bank berganda (bank
panic) berupa peningkatan masalah adverse selection dan moral hazard di pasar
kredit. Masalah-masalah ini menghasilkan penurunan yang bahkan lebih tajam
dalam pemberian pinjaman untuk memfasilitasi investasi produktif dan dapat
menyebabkan kontraksi yang lebih tajam dalam kegiatan ekonomi.<o:p></o:p></span></div>
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<b><span lang="EN-US" style="font-size: 12.0pt; mso-bidi-font-size: 11.0pt;">Ketidakseimbangan Fiskal Pemerintah<o:p></o:p></span></b></div>
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<span lang="EN-US" style="font-size: 12.0pt; mso-bidi-font-size: 11.0pt;">Ketidakseimbangan fiskal
pemerintah dapat menciptakan kekhawatiran gagal bayar dari utang pemeritah.
Akibatnya pemerintah mungkin bermasalah untuk mendapatkan orang yang bersedia
membeli obligasinya dan pemerintah dapat memaksa bank untuk membeli obligasi
tersebut. Jika kemungkinan pemerintah gagal bayar utang maka neraca bank akan
melemah dan dapat memicu krisis nilai tukar di mana nilai mata uang domestic
akan turun dengan tajam karena investor menarik ungnya keluar dari Negara,
sehuingga akan membawa destruksi neraca perusahaan dengan utang dalam jumlah
besar yang didenominasi dalam mata uang asing. Dan dapat meningkatkan
masalah-masalah adverse selection dan moral hazarad. Penurunan pinjaman, dan
kontraksi kegiatan ekonomi. <o:p></o:p></span></div>
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<span lang="EN-US" style="font-size: 12.0pt; mso-bidi-font-size: 11.0pt;"><br /></span></div>
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<span lang="EN-US" style="font-size: 12.0pt; mso-bidi-font-size: 11.0pt;"><br /></span></div>
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<span lang="EN-US" style="font-size: 12.0pt; mso-bidi-font-size: 11.0pt;"></span></div>
<div align="left" class="MsoNormal" style="margin: 0cm 0cm 0.0001pt; text-align: left;">
<b><span style="font-family: 'Times New Roman', serif; font-size: 13.5pt;">Sumber: </span></b><span style="font-family: 'Times New Roman', serif; font-size: 13.5pt;"><o:p></o:p></span></div>
<div align="left" class="MsoNormal" style="margin: 0cm 0cm 0.0001pt; text-align: left;">
<span style="font-family: 'Times New Roman', serif; font-size: 13.5pt;">Mishkin, Frederic S. 2011.</span><span style="font-family: 'Times New Roman', serif; font-size: 13.5pt;"> </span><i><span style="font-family: 'Times New Roman', serif; font-size: 13.5pt;">Ekonomi Uang,
Perbankan, dan Pasar Keuangan Edisi 8<b>.</b></span></i><b><i><span style="font-family: 'Times New Roman', serif; font-size: 13.5pt;"> </span></i></b><span style="font-family: 'Times New Roman', serif; font-size: 13.5pt;">Jakarta: Salemba
Empat<o:p></o:p></span></div>
<br />Teuku Bahran Basyiranhttp://www.blogger.com/profile/10525417589204464156noreply@blogger.com0